Motivation and Emotion

* motivation * a need or desire that energizes behavior * achievement motive * the need to master difficult challenges, to out- perform others, and to meet high standards of excellence. The drive to succeed. * affiliation motive * the need for belonging

* instinct (evolutionary) theory * drive-reduction theory * arousal theory * hierarchy of needs theory

* instinct * (1) a complex behavior that has (2) a fixed pattern throughout a species and is (3) unlearned * humans: instinctive or individualistic? * instinct theory may not explain human motivation, but strong evidence that genes predispose species-typical behavior

* drive-reduction theory: * the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need * homeostasis: * a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level * incentive: * a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

* push/pull * pushed by need to reduce drives * our inborn physiological needs * pulled by incentives * our environment * need + incentive = strong drive

* beyond homeostasis: some motivated behavior increases arousal * objective of human motivation: not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimal levels of it * boredom  increase arousal  stress

* prioritizing needs * Maslow’s pyramid * physiological, safety and security, love and belongingness, self-esteem, self-actualization * once one level is met, we are prompted (driven) to meet the next * self-actualization  self-transcendence * criticism: * arbitrary, order not universal, individualistic

* Three representative motives: * hunger * sexual motivation * the need to belong

* biological, social and environmental factors * hormones * rising blood sugar level  pancreas secretes insulin  lowers blood glucose levels  insulin release inhibited * the hypothalamus * 3 areas that integrate information about hunger and satisfaction * environment * inborn and learned preferences, cultural norms, observational learning, classical conditioning * obesity * eating disorders

* hypothalamus * secretes hormones (testosterone and estrogen) that initiate and maintain arousal * sexual orientation * the direction of an individual’s sexual interest

* achievement motive * affiliation motive * intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation * social conflict * approach-approach/avoidance- avoidance/approach-avoidance/multiple approach-avoidance

* motivated behavior  often driven by emotion * emotion * a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience * emotions as an adaptive response: * enhance our survival * focus attention, energize action * can also be maladaptive

* emotions involve * several areas of the brain, * several neurotransmitter systems * the autonomic nervous system * the endocrine system * amygdala (limbic system): aggression and fear * hypothalamus: influences other emotional states (anger) * frontal lobes: control and interpretation of emotions * left hemisphere  positive emotion * right hemisphere  negative emotion

* emotions are inferred from nonverbal expressive behaviors * body language, vocal qualities, facial expression * facial feedback hypothesis * the effect of facial expressions on the emotions we experience, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness

* does physiological arousal precede or follow emotional response? * does cognition precede or follow emotion? * common sense approach: * we cry because we are sad, tremble because we are afraid, etc. * accurate? * 3 theories contradict common sense conclusion

* (1) James-Lange Theory * what we experience as emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion- arousing stimuli. * example: I am feeling sad because I am crying * (2) Cannon-Bard Theory * an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (a) physiological responses [visceral arousal] and (b) the subjective experience of emotion [conscious experience of emotion] * (3) Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory * to experience emotion, one must (a) be physically aroused and (b) cognitively label the arousal as a particular emotion

* stress: * the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events – stressors – that we appraise as threatening or challenging * heat, cold, pain, mild shock, restraint * perceived as endangering our wel-being * stressful events: a continuum of intensity * catastrophes to significant life events to daily life * high levels of stress  immune system, blood pressure, quicker progression of existing disease

* Hans Seyle, General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) * three stages * alarm * resistance * exhaustion

* variation in patterns of reacting to stress * Type A * competitive, hard driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, anger-prone * Type B * easy-going, relaxed, calm

* adaptive * direct action, problem solving, stress reduction strategies * maladaptive * aggression, over-indulgence, self-medication, defense mechanisms