1 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Chapter 2 Theories of Development

2 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development The Nature of Developmental Theories Theory: A set of ideas proposed to describe and explain certain phenomena -Provides organization of facts and observations -Guides collection of new facts and observations A good developmental theory should be -Internally consistent -Falsifiable: Hypotheses which can be tested -Supported by data

3 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Assumptions About Human Nature Theories & the nature of human development -Hobbes ( ) -Society must civilize inherently selfish, bad children -Rousseau ( ) -Society should allow children to follow their naturally good instincts -Locke ( ) -“Tabula Rasa” or blank slate -Children will be good/bad based on experiences

4 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Other Assumptions About Human Nature Nature/Nurture: Heredity or Environment Active or Passive Development -Humans shape their lives -Humans are products of forces beyond their control Continuity/Discontinuity: Stages or gradual change -Quantitative Changes: Degree of trait or behavior -Qualitative Changes: Transformational changes Universal or Context Specific Development

5 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Instincts and Unconscious Motivation Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic energy (libido) -Id represents human’s instinctual nature -Ego is rational and objective -Superego: Internalized moral standards Regular conflicts between them

6 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Freud’s Psychosexual Development Child moves through five stages -Conflict between Id and Superego -Conflict creates anxiety -Ego defends w/ defense mechanisms Early experiences impact personality -Oral: Optimistic & gullible v. hostile -Anal: Fastidious & orderly v. messy -Phallic: Flirty & promiscuous v. chaste

7 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital Phallic is the most important stage at ages 3 to 6 -Oedipus and Electra Complex -Incestuous desire for parent of opposite sex -Anxiety and fear result Resolution is identification with same sex parent Results in Superego development

8 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory Strengths -Awareness of unconscious motivation -Emphasized importance of early experience, emotions -Neo-Freudians have been influential Weaknesses -Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable (falsifiable) -Not supported by research

9 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Erik Erikson Most influential Neo-Freudian, especially for development Some differences with Freud -Less emphasis on sexual urges -More emphasis on rational ego -More positive and adaptive view of human nature -Believed development continues through life -Emphasized psychosocial conflicts

10 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Trust vs. Mistrust: responsive caregiver key -Learn to trust caregiver to meet needs Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt -Learn to assert will and do for themselves Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschool -Devising/carrying out plans without hurting others Industry vs. Inferiority: School-Age children -Master social academic skills on par with others

11 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence -Establish social and vocational identities Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young Adult -Establish intimate relations with others Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle Age -Feel productive and helping next generation Integrity vs. Despair: Older Adult -View their life as meaningful to face death w/o regret

12 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson Strengths -Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature -Interaction of biological and social influences -Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still relevant Weaknesses -Sometimes vague and difficult to test -Does not explain how development comes about

13 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Learning Theories & Classical Conditioning Behaviorism: Conclusions should be based on observable behavior Tabula Rasa / Environmental View Classical Conditioning: Association Learning -UCS: Built-in, unlearned stimulus -UCR: Automatic, unlearned response -CS: Stimulus which causes learned response -CR: Learned response

14 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Figure 2.2

15 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning Probability of behavior based on its consequences -Reinforcement -Pleasant consequence -Increases probability -Punishment: Decreases probability -Unpleasant, aversive consequence -Decreases probability

16 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Figure 2.3

17 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Social Learning Theory: Bandura Based on operant conditioning -Humans think, anticipate, and believe Cognitive Emphasis: Observational Learning -BoBo doll studies -Model praised or punished -Children learned to imitate rewarded model -Vicarious reinforcement

18 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Learning Theory: Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths -Precise and testable theory -Carefully controlled experiments -Practical applications across lifespan Weaknesses -Inadequate account of lifespan changes -Ignore genetic and maturation processes

19 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Piaget Intelligence = Ability to adapt to environment Constructivism: Understanding based on experience Interaction of biology and environment leads to each stage -Sensorimotor (age 0-2) -Preoperational (age 2-7) -Concrete operations (age 7-11) -Formal operations (age 12+)

20 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Piaget Sensorimotor (age 0-2) -Use senses/motor beh to understand world -Begin w/ reflexes but learn symbolic use of language & can plan solutions mentally Preoperational (age 2-7) -Language devleopment, pretend play, solve problems mentally -Not yet logical, are egocentric, fooled by perception

21 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Piaget Concrete operations (age 7-11) -Logical operations, mentally classify/act on concrete symbolized objects -Solves practical problems via trial and error Formal operations (age 12+) -Think abstractly, hypothetical, trace long-term effects of beh -Form hypotheses and test them empirically

22 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Cognitive-Developmental Theory Strengths -Well accepted by developmentalists -Well researched, mostly supported -Influenced education and parenting Weaknesses -Ignores motivation and emotion -Stages not universal

23 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Contextual and Systems Theories Psychobiological, evolutionary theories -Historical context Sociocultural Perspective – Vygotsky -Cognitive development a social process -Problem solving aided by dialogues The Bioecological Approach – Bronfenbrenner -Reciprocal influence of person and environment

24 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Bronfenbrenner’s Systems Approach Microsystem: Immediate environment Mesosystem: Linkages between microsystems Exosystem: Indirectly experienced linkages Macrosystem: Culture of systems

25 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Figure 2.4

26 of 22 Carol K. Sigelman, Elizabeth A. Rider Life-Span Human Development, 4th Edition Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Bronfenbrenner Strengths -Emphasis on context Weaknesses -Partially formulated -Too many generalizations Should be combined with stage theories