1. Major Theories For Understanding Human Development
Photo: Robert Brenner/Photo Edit
FIGURE 2.8 Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes the social context of cognitive development. Why might an older sibling be effective for
promoting learning in the zone of proximal development?

2. Learning Objectives
Explain the concept of theory and discuss how theories contribute to the study of development

3. Learning Objectives
Explain the basic concepts of seven major theories and examine the implications of each theory for the study of human development:
Evolutionary theory
Psychosexual theory
Cognitive developmental theories
Theories of learning
Cultural theory
Social role theory
Systems theory

4. What is a Theory? A logical system of concepts Three questions to ask:
Helps explain observations
Contributes to development of body of knowledge
Three questions to ask:
Which phenomena is the theory trying to explain?
What assumptions does the theory make?
What does the theory predict?
APA Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology
This slide describes the basic characteristics (theory) of the science of psychology (suggested learning outcome 2.1).

5. Requirements for Theories of Development
What is the direction of change over the lifespan?
What are the mechanisms that account for growth from conception through old age? Do these mechanisms vary across the life span?
How relevant are early experiences for later development?
APA Goal 1: Knowledge base of Psychology
APA Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology
This slide describes the basic characteristics (theory) of the science of psychology (suggested learning outcome 2.1) as well as discusses overarching themes in psychology (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

6. Requirements for Theories of Development
How do physical, cognitive, emotional, and social functions interact?
How do the environmental and social contexts affect individual development?
What factors are likely to place the person at risk at specific periods of the life span?
APA Goal 1: Knowledge base of Psychology
APA Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology
This slide describes the basic characteristics (theory) of the science of psychology (suggested learning outcome 2.1) as well as discusses overarching themes in psychology (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

7. The Theory of Evolution
Darwin emphasized adaptive value of behavior and physical characteristics to specific environments:
Natural selection
Fitness, or reproductive success
Adaptation
Inclusive fitness
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology (suggested learning outcome 1.4) as well as the variability in behavior within and across species (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

8. The Theory of Evolution
Ethology
Studies the survival value of unique adaptive behavior and its evolutionary history
Evolutionary psychology
Studies long-term historical origins of behavior
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcomes for Goals 1.2 and 1.4. Specifically, overarching themes of the variability and continuity of behavior within and across species are discussed, as well as a discussion of the major perspectives of psychology.

9. Evolutionary Theory – Implications for Human Development
Evolutionary theory highlights three phases of the life span
Healthy growth and development leading up to the reproductive period
Success in mating and the conception of offspring
Parenting offspring to survive and bear their own offspring
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

10. Concepts of Evolutionary Theory
Table 2.1 Basic Concepts of Evolutionary Theory
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

11. Psychosexual Theory Children move through a series of stages
Confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations
Healthy personality development
Determined by how parents manage child’s early sexual and aggressive drives
Focuses on how individuals resolve conflicts between drives
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also presents psychosexual theory to help explain psychological phenomena (suggested learning outcome 1.3).

12. Psychosexual Theory Freud believed that all behavior is motivated
Unconscious
Stores powerful, primitive motives
Drives, or libido
Sexual and aggressive forces that desire to be satisfied
Id, ego, and superego
Three structures of personality
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also presents psychosexual theory to help explain mental processes (suggested learning outcome 1.3).

13. Psychosexual Theory Stages of development Oral Anal Phallic Latency
Genital
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

14. Psychosexual Theory Defense mechanisms Repression Projection
Reaction formation
Regression
Displacement
Rationalization
Isolation
Denial
Sublimation
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide uses the concepts and language of psychosexual theory and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

15. Psychosexual Theory – Implications for Human Development
The psychosexual approach recognizes:
The tension between interpersonal and intrapsychic demands help shape personality
The influences of childhood experiences on adult behavior
The importance of motives, emotions, and fantasies
The role of sexual impulses during childhood
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide describes how psychosexual theory can be used explain mental processes and psychological phenomena (suggested learning outcome 1.3).

16. Cognitive Developmental Theories
Cognition
The process of organizing and making meaning of experience
Two cognitive developmental theories
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

17. Basic Concepts in Piaget’s Theory
Equilibrium
Schemes
Operations
Assimilation
Accommodation
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

18. Basic Concepts in Piaget’s Theory
Figure 2.6 Adaptation = Assimilation + Accommodation
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

19. Basic Concepts in Piaget’s Theory
Four stages of cognitive development:
Sensorimotor Stage (0-18 months)
Preoperational Stage (18 months-6 years)
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
Enables scientific reasoning
Formal Operational Stage (11 years on)
Knowledge is created through active engagement
Novelty promotes cognitive development
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also presents developmental changes in behavior/mental processes across the life span (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

20. Vygotsky’s Concepts of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky is an interactionist
Human development can only be understood within a social-historical framework
Cognitive development is a socially mediated process
Zone of proximal development
Range of tasks that the child cannot handle alone
Can accomplish with help of adults, more skilled peers
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
APA Goal 8: Sociocultural and International Awareness
This slide introduces basic concepts for a major theory in psychology (suggested learning outcome 1.4) as well as explains how sociocultural contexts influence development (suggested learning outcome 8.2).

21. Basic Concepts of Cognitive Development Theories
Table 2.3 Basic Concepts of Cognitive Developmental Theories

22. Theories of Learning Social learning theory emphasizes:
Learning via observation and imitation
Role of modeling
Learning via vicarious reinforcement
Social cognition rather than a social learning approach
How is efficacy the culmination of this learning process?

23. Cognitive Behaviorism
Study of thoughts, ideas, and memories that influence behavior
Edward Tolman
Learner develops a cognitive map
Mental representation of the learning environment
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates theory representing learning and cognition (suggested learning outcome 1.2) as well as concepts that describe antecedents and consequences of behavior from one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology (suggested learning outcomes 1.3 and 1.4). This slide also compares and contrasts major perspectives of cognitive theories (suggested learning outcome 1.4).

24. Cognitive Behaviorism
Figure 2.10 The Six Cognitive and Affective Dimensions that Influence Behavior

25. Cultural Theory Emphasizes:
Meaning, or the behavior shared by a group of people
An individual’s psychological experiences are shaped through:
Cultural pathways
Cultural determinism
Enculturation
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
APA Goal 8: Sociocultural and International Awareness
This slide discusses basic concepts of a major theoretical perspective that account for psychological phenomena (suggested learning outcomes 1.3 and 1.4). This slide also represents social processes as they relate to sociocultural dimensions (suggested learning outcome 1.2) as well as explains how sociocultural contexts influence development (suggested learning outcome 8.2).

26. Cultural Theory
How do individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ?
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
APA Goal 8: Sociocultural and International Awareness
This slide discusses basic concepts of a major theoretical perspective that account for psychological phenomena (suggested learning outcomes 1.3 and 1.4). This slide also represents social processes as they relate to sociocultural dimensions (suggested learning outcome 1.2) as well as explains how sociocultural contexts influence development (suggested learning outcome 8.2).

27. Cultural Theory Implications for human development
Culture and biological development interact
Determine how each period of life is experienced
Links to the psychosocial approach
All cultures must be able to adapt to changes in economic, environmental, and intercultural conditions to survive
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
APA Goal 8: Sociocultural and International Awareness
This slide explains how sociocultural contexts influence development (suggested learning outcome 8.2). The overarching theme of the interaction of heredity and environment are also discussed (suggested learning outcome 1.2). This slide compares and contrasts major perspectives (suggested learning outcome 1.4).

28. Social Role Theory
Process of socialization and personality development
Via the individual’s participation in increasingly diverse and complex social roles
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide discusses basic concepts of a major theoretical perspective that account for psychological phenomena/behaviors (suggested learning outcomes 1.3 and 1.4). This slide also represents theory related to learning and cognition (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

29. Social Role Theory Three elements of concern:
Role enactment
Social roles
Role expectations
Four dimensions of social roles
Number of roles
Intensity of role involvement
Amount of time the role demands
Degree of structure or flexibility
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

30. Social Role Theory – Implications for Human Development
Social roles:
Provide consistency to life experiences
Prompt new learning
Personal relationships and social groups help contribute to one’s social identity
APA Goal 1: Knowledge base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

31. Social Role Theory Table 2.7 Basic Concepts from Social Role Theory
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide compares and contrasts major perspectives (suggested learning outcome 1.4).

32. Systems Theory
Systems are characterized by relationships among component parts
The whole is more than the sum of its parts
An open system
Adaptive self-organization
Components and the whole are always in tension
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also discusses relevant levels of analysis (i.e., system instead of individual; suggested learning outcome 1.2).

33. Ecological Systems Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner argues that individuals develop within a multilayered system of relationships
Microsystem
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also discusses relevant levels of analysis (i.e., individual, system, society/culture; suggested learning outcome 1.2).

34. Ecological Systems Theory
FIGURE 2.14 A Topography of the Relationship Among Systems This is a hypothetical model of a person’s ecological contexts. Over time, the specific microsystems change, and a person becomes involved in new microsystems. The impact of previous systems may continue to influence a person as a result of learning, memories, and internalized values. The two-way arrows suggest that individuals influence their contexts and contexts influence the individuals who participate in them. Adapted from Bronfenbrenner (1979)

35. Developmental Systems Theory
Emphasizes the ongoing interaction across many levels of the human organism (genetic to behavioral)
Focuses on:
The individual in the setting
Plasticity, both in the individual, and in an environmental context
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also discusses relevant levels of analysis (i.e., individual, system, society/culture; suggested learning outcome 1.2).

36. Systems Theory – Implications for Human Development
The family system is maintained by patterns of communication
Interdependence
Change in one family member is accompanied by changes in others
Interventions at any level of the environment can affect development
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also discusses relevant levels of analysis (i.e., individual, system, society/culture; suggested learning outcome 1.2) as well as an interpretation of behavior at the level of the family system (suggested learning outcome 1.3).

37. Systems Theory Insert Table 2.8 Basic Concepts of Systems Theory
APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology
This slide compares and contrasts major perspectives (suggested learning outcome 1.4).

38. Case Study – Jack Manasky and His Daughter Marilyn
Reflections
What defense mechanisms might Jack be using?
How might the differences in Jack and Marilyn’s “cultures” affect their cognitive reasoning?
How might Marilyn use social learning techniques to modify her father’s coffee-drinking behavior?
APA Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology
This slide offers students the opportunity to use critical thinking effectively (APA suggested learning outcome 3.1) by evaluating the quality of information and behavioral claims, developing sound arguments, and articulating problems clearly (3.3 & 3.4).
APA Goal 7: Communication Skills
This slide provides students the opportunity to communicate effectively in a variety of formats such as writing, oral communication, interpersonal communication, and collaboration (APA suggested learning outcomes 7.1, 7.2, 7.4, and 7.5).

39. Case Study – Jack Manasky and His Daughter Marilyn
Reflections
What cultural norms for the relationship of an adult daughter and an aging father are at play?
What reciprocal roles do you see between Jack and Marilyn?
What feedback mechanisms encourage or discourage certain behaviors between Jack and Marilyn?
APA Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology
This slide offers students the opportunity to use critical thinking effectively (APA suggested learning outcome 3.1) by evaluating the quality of information and behavioral claims, developing sound arguments, and articulating problems clearly (3.3 & 3.4).
APA Goal 7: Communication Skills
This slide provides students the opportunity to communicate effectively in a variety of formats such as writing, oral communication, interpersonal communication, and collaboration (APA suggested learning outcomes 7.1, 7.2, 7.4, and 7.5).
This slide describes the basic characteristics (theory) of the science of psychology (suggested learning outcome 2.1) as well as discusses overarching themes in psychology (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

40. Your Perspective
What theories do you find most relevant to your current stage of development, and why?
Evolutionary theory
Psychosexual theory
Cognitive developmental theories
Theories of learning
Cultural theory
Social role theory
Systems theory
APA Goal 4: Application of Psychology
This slide demonstrates how psychological concepts, theories, and research findings can apply to everyday life and be used to explain and guide social issues (APA suggested learning outcomes 4.3 and 4.4).