1. Chapter One The Study of Human Development

2. Recurring Issues in Human Development
Nature Versus Nurture—biological, genetic factors vs. environmental factors
Continuity Versus Discontinuity—smooth progression thru life vs. series of abrupt shifts (i.e., personality)

3. Basic Forces in Human Development: The Biopsychosocial Framework
Biological Forces—prenatal dev, brain maturation, puberty, menopause
Psychological Forces—internal cognitive, emotional personality factors
Sociocultural Forces—interpersonal, societal, cultural, ethnic factors
Life-Cycle Forces—differences in how the same event affects people of different ages

4. Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development
Psychodynamic—Sigmund Freud
Eric Erikson
Learning—Watson
Skinner
Bandura
Cognitive—Piaget
Kohlberg
Ecological & Systems—Bronfenbrenner

5. Psychodynamic: Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Develops in stages; everyone goes through same stages in same order
Oral Stage year old
Anal Stage years old
Phallic Stage years old
Latency Stage puberty
Genital Stage puberty-death

6. Psychodynamic: Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year old)
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years old)
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years old)
Industry vs. Inferiority (6-Adolescence)
Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
Integrity vs. Despair (Late Life)

7. Concentrates on how learning influences behavior
Learning Theory
Concentrates on how learning influences behavior
Emphasizes the role of experience
Stresses the influence of consequences on behavior
Recognizes that people learn from watching others

8. B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
The consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be repeated
A reinforcement increases the chance that a behavior will be repeated
A punishment decreases the chance that a behavior will be repeated

9. Social Learning Theory
Observational Learning, or Imitation
People learn by watching others
Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is seen as smart, popular, or talented
Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is rewarded for the behavior

10. Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Cognition emphasizes thinking
We think about our experiences, trying to understand them
Emphasizes how we perceive our world and our experiences

11. Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Emphasizes the development of the thought processes as we mature
Two approaches to the development of cognition:
We develop our thinking in stages (Piaget, Kohlberg)
Like computers, we become more efficient at processing information as we mature (Information-Processing Theory)

12. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Cognitive development consists of stages in which children’s understanding of their surroundings becomes increasingly complex and accurate

13. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
The Child interacts with the world through sensation and movement
Develops the ability to hold a mental representation of objects
Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)
Develops the ability to use symbols
Egocentric: understands the world only from his/her own perspective

14. Piaget’s Stages
Concrete Operational Thought (7 years to early adolescence)
Can use logic and reasoning
Cannot accurately consider the hypothetical
Formal Operational Thought (Adolescence and beyond)
Thinks abstractly
Deals with the hypothetical concepts

15. Information-Processing Theory
Uses the computer as a model of how thinking develops
Mental Hardware: psychological structures such as memory capacity
Mental Software: cognitive abilities that process information and help us to interact with the world

16. Emphasized the impact of sociocultural influence on child development
Vygotsky’s Theory
Emphasized the impact of sociocultural
influence on child development
Focused on how adults convey aspects
of their culture to children
Viewed development as an
“apprenticeship”

17. Bronfenbrenner’s Theory: An Ecological Approach
Views all aspects of human development as
interconnected
The Microsystem
People and objects in the immediate
environment (parents, siblings, peers,
teachers)
The Mesosystem
Interaction between different aspect of
Microsystems (family environment
influence school behavior)

18. Bronfenbrenner’s Theory: An Ecological Approach
The Exosystem
Social, environmental, & governmental
forces (parent’s work environment
influences child’s school behavior)
The Macrosystem
Culture beliefs/practices, economic
conditions, politics influence child’s
development

19. Caption: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach emphasizes the interaction across different systems in which people operate.

20. Life-Span Perspective There are many factors and one does
Current Perspectives
Life-Span Perspective
There are many factors and one does
not adequately explain development.
All must be considered
Selective Optimization w/Compensation
Describes choices that determine and
regulate development and aging

21. Current Perspectives (Cont)
The Life-Course Perspective
Emphasizes
How personal life-events interact with historical influences
How individual issues integrate with family issues
How earlier life events and the period of history in which they occurred shaped subsequent events and issues

22. Four Features of the Life-span Approach
Multidirectionality
Different areas of development grow and decline at the same time
Plasticity
Skills and abilities can be improved or developed throughout the life-span

23. Four Features of the Life-span Approach (Cont)
Historical Context
Historical time periods must be considered in examining development
Multiple Causation
Biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle changes must be considered

24. Measurement in Human Development Research
Systematic Observation
Naturalistic Observation
“Real-life” observations
Structured Observation
Researcher creates a situation likely to result in a type of behavior in which she/he is interested

25. Evaluating Research Methods
Reliability
Does this method consistently measure what is being studied?
Validity
Does this measure provide a true picture of what is being studied?

26. Representational Sampling
Populations
Broad groups of people in which researchers may be interested
Sample
A subset of the population chosen to represent the population

27. General Research Designs
Correlational Studies
Measures relationship between variables as they are observed naturally in the world
Correlation does not prove causation

28. Experimental Studies
Studies the effect of one variable on another. Studies possible “cause and effect” relationship
The Independent Variable is the factor that is being manipulated
The Dependent Variable is the behavior that is studied for possible change

29. Designs For Studying Development
Longitudinal Studies
Observes or tests one group of individuals over a long period
Is expensive and requires a large time commitment
Cross-Sectional Studies
Observes or tests groups of different ages
More time-effective, less expensive, but cannot show small changes of continuity of development

30. Conducting Research Ethically
Minimize and warn of any risks to participants
“Informed Consent”
Avoid deception
Individual results or data must be kept
anonymous or confidential

31. Communicating Research Results
Research results are published in scientific journals
To be published in journals, research results must be useful, well-done, and original