1. Theories of Development
Chapter 2:
Theories of Development

2. Psychosexual Theories
Learning Theories
Cognitive Theories
Biological and Ecological Theories
Comparing Theories
In this chapter

3. An Overview Major families of theoretical perspectives Psychoanalytic
Learning
Cognitive
Other theoretical trends
Biological
Ecological

4. Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud
Psychosexual theory: Internal drives and emotions influence behavior. Patient memories used as primary source material Three personality types: id, ego, superego Sexual feelings are part of personality development.
Libido: unconscious process; internal drive for physical pleasure
Defense mechanisms

5. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
At each stage, the libido centers on different part of body; Figure 2.1 (p. 26)

6. Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson (Neo-Freudian)
Psychosocial theory: Development influenced by common cultural demands and internal drives
Each psychosocial stage requires solution of a crisis.
Healthy development requires a favorable ratio of positive to negative experiences.

7. Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson (Neo-Freudian)
Stages
First four stages form adult personality foundation
Childhood-adulthood transition influential
Ages
Adult stages not strongly tied to age

8. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Development continues throughout the entire lifespan.
Each new crisis appears because of changes in social demands that accompany changes in age.

9. Learning Theories Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning: Learning process that occurs through associations between environmental stimulus and naturally occurring stimulus Reflex: Stimulus–response connection Learned: Conditioned stimulus elicits conditioned response.
Reflex Stimulus–Response connection
Unlearned
Unconditioned Stimulus elicits Unconditioned Response.
Food automatically elicits salivation.
Learned
Conditioned Stimulus elicits Conditioned Response.
Smell of food (bacon) elicits salivation.

10. Learning Theories Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner
Operant conditioning: Deals with modification of voluntary behavior
Behaviors dependent on reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
Positive and negative reinforcement interact in complex ways in real life.

11. Learning Theories Hints for Parents and Caregivers
Positive and negative reinforcement interact in complex ways in real life.
The best chance for behavioral change exists when an appropriate consequence administered first after the behavior occurs.

12. Learning Theories Social Cognitive Theory: Albert Bandura
Observational learning or modeling: Learning results from seeing a model reinforced or punished for behavior.
Dependent on four factors:
Attention
Memory
Physical capabilities
Motivation
Learning from model not always automatic
Self-efficacy

13. Learning Theories Social Cognitive Theory: Self-Efficacy
Perceived self-efficacy: People's beliefs about their capabilities to produce effects
Learning
Influenced by perceived similarity to model
Not limited to overt behavior
Comes also from ideas, expectations, internal standards, and self-concepts
Learning from model not always automatic

14. Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget
Piaget’s cognitive theory: Development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.
Scheme
Assimilation
Accommodation
Equilibration
Scheme
internal cognitive structure
Assimilation
process of using schemes to make sense of experiences
Accommodation
changing a scheme to incorporate new information
Equilibration
balancing assimilation and accommodation

15. Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Stages
Sensorimotor Stage
Preoperational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage
Formal Operational Stage
Evolution of Logical Thinking
See Table 2.5
Sequential, universal, invariant
The rate of development differs for individual children.

16. Cognitive Theories Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Socio-cultural theory: Complex forms of thinking have their origins in social interactions, not private explorations.
Children learn new cognitive skills guided by a more skilled partner.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Scaffolding

17. Cognitive Theories Importance of Assisted Discovery
Assisted discovery: Child integrates results of independent discoveries with new knowledge taught in systematic and structured way. What are the educational applications of this kind of learning?

18. Cognitive Theories Importance of Assisted Discovery
Educational Applications
Supports active exploration opportunities
Discovery of what knowledge, skills, and understandings have not yet surfaced for learner but are on edge of emergence

19. Cognitive Theories Information-Processing Theory
Information-processing theory: Computer used as model to explain how mind manages information
Three-stage theory of memory
Sensory memory
Short-term or working memory
Long-term memory

20. Figure 2.2 The Information-Processing System

21. Cognitive Theories Neo-Piagetian Theories
Piagetian information-processing hybrid
Uses IP to explain Piaget’s stages
Expands (not contradicts) Piaget’s theory
Agrees that children's thinking reflects developing internal mental structures
Draws on linguistic theories about content domain specificity of cognition

22. ? ?
Questions To Ponder
Give an example each of a positive reinforcement and a punishment in your work or academic life. Looking at ecological systems theory, describe your personal exosystem, macrosystem, and microsystem influences.

23. Biological Theories Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral genetics: Examines genetic underpinnings of behavioral phenotypes Can you think of questions that might be addressed using this theoretical perspective?
Heredity affects a broad range of traits and behaviors, and its influence is seen throughout the lifespan.
Some of the questions addressed:
How does heredity affects individual differences?
How are similar traits of related people influenced by genes?
Can a child’s pattern of inherited qualities influence how she behaves with others?

24. Did you list twin studies in your response?
Figure 2.3 IQs of Fraternal and Identical Twins
Look at these findings from several studies of Dutch twins. What does this tell you about the influence of heredity and age?

25. Other Biological Theories Ethology and Sociobiology
Ethology: Examines genetically determined mechanisms that promote survival through natural selection
Imprinting
Sociobiology: Application of evolutionary theory to social behavior
“Genetic selfishness”
Development results from the degree to which genes help or hinder individuals’ efforts to adapt to the environment.
Emphasizes genes that aid in group survival

26. Bioecological Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner
Bioecological theory: Explains development in terms of relationships between people and their environments
Contexts
Macrosystem
Exosystem
Microsystem
Mesosystem
Biological context
Biological context: child’s makeup and developmental stage

27. Place yourself in the center of the model.
Who or what would you place in each ring?
What prompted your choices?
Figure 2.4 Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts of Development

28. Why asking which theory is RIGHT may be wrong!
Instead of right/wrong, try useful/not useful.
Evaluation of usefulness of each theory
Generate predictions that can be tested.
Heuristic value
Practical value
Explanation of basic developmental facts
Generate predictions that can be tested.
Heuristic value: degree to which it stimulates research
Practical value
Explain the basic facts of development.

29. Multiple Theoretical Approaches Eclecticism
Interdisciplinary; builds on ideas from multiple sources
Avoids rigid adherence to single theory
Contributes to development of more comprehensive theories
Contributes to development of more comprehensive theories to support future research questions and hypotheses