1. Science of Life-Span Development
Definitions
Psychoanalytic theories
Cognitive theories
Behavioral/Social Cognitive
Ethological theories
Ecological theories
Research methodology
Here we’ll review some history (which you probably learned in Psych 1) and research methodology (also from Psych 1).

2. Definitions of…
Theory: A theory is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and to make predictions.
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a specific assumption or prediction that can be tested to determine its accuracy
As researchers formulate a problem to study, they often draw on theories and develop hypotheses.
The various theories are described on the next slides, but most people follow an eclectic approach:
Does not follow any one theoretical approach
Selects and uses whatever is considered best from each theory
Acknowledges that no one theory provides a complete description and explanation of development, and that each has made important contributions to understanding development
Presented and maintained throughout the book

3. Psychoanalytic Theories
Sigmund Freud
Personality
Psychosexual development
Oral (0-1)
Anal (1-3)
Phallic (3-6)
Latent (6-12)
Genital (12+)
Psychoanalytic Theories
Behavior is primarily unconscious— beyond awareness.
Behavior is heavily colored by emotion.
Behavior is merely a surface characteristic with symbolic meaning.
Early experiences with parents extensively shape behavior.
Sigmund Freud ( )
Freud was a medical doctor specializing in neurology who developed ideas about psychoanalytic theory from work with mental patients. He considered problems to be the result of experiences early in life.
Freud’s Three Structures of Personality
The Id
Totally unconscious: has no contact with reality
Consists of instincts: our reservoir of psychic energy
Has no morality
The Ego
Deals with the demands of reality
Called the “executive branch” of personality: uses reasoning to make decisions
The Superego
The moral branch of personality

4. Psychoanalytic Theories
Erik Erikson: Eight stages of development
Trust v. Mistrust (0-1)
Autonomy v. Shame/Doubt (1-3)
Initiative v. Guilt (3-5)
Industry v. Inferiority (5-11)
Identity v. Role Confusion (11-22)
Intimacy v. Isolation (22-40)
Generativity v. Stagnation (40-65)
Integrity v. Despair (65+)
Erik Erikson ( )
Recognized Freud’s contributions but believed Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development. He developed the Psychosocial Theory of Development. The primary motivation for human behavior is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people. He proposed the eight stages of development which unfold throughout the entire life span. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be faced.
The Psychosocial Theory of Development
Crises are not catastrophes but rather turning points of increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more an individual resolves the crises successfully, the healthier development will be.
Stages of Psychosocial Development
Trust vs. Mistrust (First Year). A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and a minimal amount of fear and apprehension about the future. Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Second Year). After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy. They realize their will. If infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt.

5. Cognitive Theories Piaget’s cognitive development theory
Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory
The information-processing approach
Jean Piaget ( ) Swiss psychologist who observed his own children to develop theory of cognitive development. Changed how we think about the development of children’s minds. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory Children actively construct their understanding of the world. Children progress through four stages of cognitive development. Two processes underlie development: assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation: Incorporating new information into their existing knowledge
Accommodation: Adapting one’s existing knowledge to new information
Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 yrs.). Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical, motor actions. At the beginning, newborns are limited to reflexive patterns. By the end, 2-year-olds are beginning to operate with primitive symbols.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs.). Children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings. Operations are internalized mental actions that allow children to do mentally what they previously did physically.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 yrs.). Children can perform mental operations. Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought, as long as

6. Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
These theories believe that scientifically we can only study what can be directly observed and measured.
They also believe that development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment.
Classical Conditioning
In the early 1900s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered the phenomenon in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a behavioral response originally produced by another stimulus.
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner demonstrated that the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior occurring again. Consequences can be either rewards (increasing the likelihood of behavior recurrence), or punishment (decreasing this chance).
Social Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel believe that cognitive processes are important mediators of environment-behavior connections. Learning occurs through observing what others do, as individuals cognitively represent what they see and adopt the behavior themselves.
Contributions of Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
They emphasize the importance of scientific research.
They focus on the environmental determinants of behavior.
They underscore the importance of observational learning (Bandura).

7. Ethological Theory Behavior is strongly influenced by biology.
Behavior is tied to evolution.
Behavior is characterized by critical periods.
European zoologist Konrad Lorenz ( ) identified imprinting.
John Bowlby theorized about attachment.
Definition of Critical Period
A fixed time period very early in development during which certain behaviors optimally emerge
Definition of Imprinting
The rapid, innate learning within a limited critical period of time that involves attachment to the first moving object seen
Attachment
Attachment is a concept based on principles of ethological theory. Attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences:
Positive and secure attachment results in positive development.
Negative and insecure attachment results in problematic development.
Contributions of Ethological Theory
It has an increased focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development.
It uses careful observations in naturalistic settings.
It emphasizes critical periods of development.

8. Ecological Theory Developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner.
Consists of 5 environmental systems:
The Microsystem
The Mesosystem
The Exosystem
The Macrosystem
The Chronosystem
Ecological theory describes how we are influenced by five systems, from the close-ranging to the far-ranging.
The Microsystem
The setting in which the individual lives. Includes the person’s family, peers, school, and neighborhood. In the microsystem, the most direct interactions with social agents take place. The individual is not passive, but rather helps construct the settings.
The Mesosystem
Involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts. Examples:
The relation of family experiences to school experiences.
The relation of family experiences to peer experiences.
The Exosystem
Involved when experiences in another social setting—in which the individual does not have an active role—influence what the individual experiences in an immediate context. Example:
Work experiences may affect a woman’s relationship with her husband and child, due to travel and increased job responsibilities.

9. Research Methods Observation Laboratories vs. naturalistic settings
Interviews and Questionnaires
Case Studies
Standardized Tests
Life-History Records
Animal Research
Correlational research
Experimental research
Observation Requires:
Knowing what you’re looking for
Conducting observations in unbiased manner
Accurately recording and categorizing what you see
Effectively communicating your observations
Can be made in laboratories or naturalistic settings
Laboratories vs. Naturalistic Settings
Laboratories are controlled settings from which many of the complex factors of the real world have been removed. Criticized for being artificial. Naturalistic observation occurs outside a laboratory in the “real world”; places such as schools, home, museums, and offices.
Interviews and Questionnaires
Used to learn about experiences, beliefs, and feelings. Involve concrete, specific, unambiguous questions. Problems may arise with the social desirability effect: when individuals respond in a way they think is most socially desirable, rather than how they truly feel.

10. Definitions of… Independent variables Dependent Variables
Experimental group
Control Group
Random assignment
Independent variables are the manipulated, influential, experimental factors.
Dependent variables are the factors that are measured in an experiment. They can change as the IV is manipulated.
Experimental groups are groups whose experiences in a study are manipulated.
Control groups are groups who are treated in every way like the experimental groups except for the manipulated factors. They serve as the baseline against which the effects of the manipulated condition can be compared.
Random assignment is the process of assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, reducing the likelihood that the experiment’s results will be due to any preexisting differences between the groups.

11. Experiment example…
Here’s an example of how experimental and control groups are compared.

12. Research Challenges Ethics Gender Ethnicity and Culture Ethics
Ethics of research are concerned with the well-being of subjects with regard to physical and mental harm. Participants or their parents must give informed consent.
Gender
A focus on gender in research is concerned with gender bias in all aspects of research (theory, questions, hypotheses, participants, design), primarily against women.
Ethnicity and Culture
Ethnicity and culture must be considered in research to ensure the inclusion of individuals from minority backgrounds in research. There must also be an awareness of ethnic gloss—using an ethnic label, such as African American or Latino, in a superficial way that makes an ethnic group look more homogeneous than it really is.