Science of Life-Span Development Definitions Psychoanalytic theories Cognitive theories Behavioral/Social Cognitive Ethological theories Ecological theories Research methodology Here we’ll review some history (which you probably learned in Psych 1) and research methodology (also from Psych 1).

Definitions of… Theory: A theory is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and to make predictions. Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a specific assumption or prediction that can be tested to determine its accuracy As researchers formulate a problem to study, they often draw on theories and develop hypotheses. The various theories are described on the next slides, but most people follow an eclectic approach: Does not follow any one theoretical approach Selects and uses whatever is considered best from each theory Acknowledges that no one theory provides a complete description and explanation of development, and that each has made important contributions to understanding development Presented and maintained throughout the book

Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud Personality Psychosexual development Oral (0-1) Anal (1-3) Phallic (3-6) Latent (6-12) Genital (12+) Psychoanalytic Theories Behavior is primarily unconscious— beyond awareness. Behavior is heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic with symbolic meaning. Early experiences with parents extensively shape behavior. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Freud was a medical doctor specializing in neurology who developed ideas about psychoanalytic theory from work with mental patients. He considered problems to be the result of experiences early in life. Freud’s Three Structures of Personality The Id Totally unconscious: has no contact with reality Consists of instincts: our reservoir of psychic energy Has no morality The Ego Deals with the demands of reality Called the “executive branch” of personality: uses reasoning to make decisions The Superego The moral branch of personality

Psychoanalytic Theories Erik Erikson: Eight stages of development Trust v. Mistrust (0-1) Autonomy v. Shame/Doubt (1-3) Initiative v. Guilt (3-5) Industry v. Inferiority (5-11) Identity v. Role Confusion (11-22) Intimacy v. Isolation (22-40) Generativity v. Stagnation (40-65) Integrity v. Despair (65+) Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Recognized Freud’s contributions but believed Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development. He developed the Psychosocial Theory of Development. The primary motivation for human behavior is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people. He proposed the eight stages of development which unfold throughout the entire life span. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be faced. The Psychosocial Theory of Development Crises are not catastrophes but rather turning points of increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more an individual resolves the crises successfully, the healthier development will be. Stages of Psychosocial Development Trust vs. Mistrust (First Year). A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and a minimal amount of fear and apprehension about the future. Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Second Year). After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy. They realize their will. If infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt.

Cognitive Theories Piaget’s cognitive development theory Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory The information-processing approach Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Swiss psychologist who observed his own children to develop theory of cognitive development. Changed how we think about the development of children’s minds. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory Children actively construct their understanding of the world. Children progress through four stages of cognitive development. Two processes underlie development: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation: Incorporating new information into their existing knowledge Accommodation: Adapting one’s existing knowledge to new information Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 yrs.). Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical, motor actions. At the beginning, newborns are limited to reflexive patterns. By the end, 2-year-olds are beginning to operate with primitive symbols. Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs.). Children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings. Operations are internalized mental actions that allow children to do mentally what they previously did physically. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 yrs.). Children can perform mental operations. Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought, as long as

Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories These theories believe that scientifically we can only study what can be directly observed and measured. They also believe that development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment. Classical Conditioning In the early 1900s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered the phenomenon in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a behavioral response originally produced by another stimulus. Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner demonstrated that the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior occurring again. Consequences can be either rewards (increasing the likelihood of behavior recurrence), or punishment (decreasing this chance). Social Cognitive Theory Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel believe that cognitive processes are important mediators of environment-behavior connections. Learning occurs through observing what others do, as individuals cognitively represent what they see and adopt the behavior themselves. Contributions of Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories They emphasize the importance of scientific research. They focus on the environmental determinants of behavior. They underscore the importance of observational learning (Bandura).

Ethological Theory Behavior is strongly influenced by biology. Behavior is tied to evolution. Behavior is characterized by critical periods. European zoologist Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) identified imprinting. John Bowlby theorized about attachment. Definition of Critical Period A fixed time period very early in development during which certain behaviors optimally emerge Definition of Imprinting The rapid, innate learning within a limited critical period of time that involves attachment to the first moving object seen Attachment Attachment is a concept based on principles of ethological theory. Attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences: Positive and secure attachment results in positive development. Negative and insecure attachment results in problematic development. Contributions of Ethological Theory It has an increased focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development. It uses careful observations in naturalistic settings. It emphasizes critical periods of development.

Ecological Theory Developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. Consists of 5 environmental systems: The Microsystem The Mesosystem The Exosystem The Macrosystem The Chronosystem Ecological theory describes how we are influenced by five systems, from the close-ranging to the far-ranging. The Microsystem The setting in which the individual lives. Includes the person’s family, peers, school, and neighborhood. In the microsystem, the most direct interactions with social agents take place. The individual is not passive, but rather helps construct the settings. The Mesosystem Involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts. Examples: The relation of family experiences to school experiences. The relation of family experiences to peer experiences. The Exosystem Involved when experiences in another social setting—in which the individual does not have an active role—influence what the individual experiences in an immediate context. Example: Work experiences may affect a woman’s relationship with her husband and child, due to travel and increased job responsibilities.

Research Methods Observation Laboratories vs. naturalistic settings Interviews and Questionnaires Case Studies Standardized Tests Life-History Records Animal Research Correlational research Experimental research Observation Requires: Knowing what you’re looking for Conducting observations in unbiased manner Accurately recording and categorizing what you see Effectively communicating your observations Can be made in laboratories or naturalistic settings Laboratories vs. Naturalistic Settings Laboratories are controlled settings from which many of the complex factors of the real world have been removed. Criticized for being artificial. Naturalistic observation occurs outside a laboratory in the “real world”; places such as schools, home, museums, and offices. Interviews and Questionnaires Used to learn about experiences, beliefs, and feelings. Involve concrete, specific, unambiguous questions. Problems may arise with the social desirability effect: when individuals respond in a way they think is most socially desirable, rather than how they truly feel.

Definitions of… Independent variables Dependent Variables Experimental group Control Group Random assignment Independent variables are the manipulated, influential, experimental factors. Dependent variables are the factors that are measured in an experiment. They can change as the IV is manipulated. Experimental groups are groups whose experiences in a study are manipulated. Control groups are groups who are treated in every way like the experimental groups except for the manipulated factors. They serve as the baseline against which the effects of the manipulated condition can be compared. Random assignment is the process of assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, reducing the likelihood that the experiment’s results will be due to any preexisting differences between the groups.

Experiment example… Here’s an example of how experimental and control groups are compared.

Research Challenges Ethics Gender Ethnicity and Culture Ethics Ethics of research are concerned with the well-being of subjects with regard to physical and mental harm. Participants or their parents must give informed consent. Gender A focus on gender in research is concerned with gender bias in all aspects of research (theory, questions, hypotheses, participants, design), primarily against women. Ethnicity and Culture Ethnicity and culture must be considered in research to ensure the inclusion of individuals from minority backgrounds in research. There must also be an awareness of ethnic gloss—using an ethnic label, such as African American or Latino, in a superficial way that makes an ethnic group look more homogeneous than it really is.