{ Theories of Motivation Biological, Humanistic, Cognitive, and Social

 As we just discussed in “motivation and biology”, early theories on motivation relied heavily on a “purely biological” explanation for motivation. We called this “instinct.”  These theories, along with arousal theory and drive-reduction theory, have given us an understanding of nature’s role in motivating behavior.  Be sure you understand primary drives, secondary drives, Olds and Milner, instinct theory, arousal theory, Yerkes- Dodson law, opponent process theory, drive-reduction theory, homeostasis (Goldilocks), set point, and the hypothalamus. Biological Theory

 We also talked about Hunger, Thirst, and Sex.  These are all primary drives.  Remember these terms: Leptin, Blood Glucose, Glucostatic Hypothesis, Insulin, Lipostatic Hypothesis, Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, Body Dismorphia, Androgens, Estrogen, and Sexual Orientation. Biological Theory

 Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory and B.F. Skinner's Behaviorism.  It typically holds that people are inherently good. It adopts a holistic approach to human existence and pays special attention to such phenomena as creativity, free will, and human potential. It encourages viewing ourselves as a "whole person" greater than the sum of our parts and encourages self exploration rather than the study of behavior in other people. Humanistic Theory

Abraham Maslow ( )  Maslow noted, the basic needs of humans must be met (e.g. food, shelter, warmth, security, sense of belongingness etc.) before a person can achieve self-actualization - the need to be good, to be fully alive and to find meaning in life.  His research shows that when people live lives that are different from their true nature and capabilities, they are less likely to be happy than those whose goals and lives match. For example, someone who has inherent potential to be a great artist or teacher may never realize his/her talents if their energy is focused on attaining the basic needs of humans.

Maslow defined a Hierarchy of Human Needs that stated the lower needs must be met before an individual can strive to meet the higher needs.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

PHYSIOLOGICAL-necessary for life; unmet, these needs lead to death  Food  Water  Oxygen  Sleep  Protection from extreme temperatures  Elimination  Sensory needs  Motor needs

SAFETY/SECURITY  The need to be free from anxiety and fear  The need to be secure in the environment  The need for order and routine

LOVE AND AFFECTION  Social acceptance, friendship, to be loved  Need to belong, to relate to others  Sexuality -a person’s feelings/attitude toward their masculine/feminine nature  Sexuality -the ability to give and receive love and affection -reproductive capabilities

ESTEEM  Feeling important and worthwhile – includes respect, approval, appreciation  We engage in activities that bring achievement, success, and recognition  We gain self-confidence and begin to direct our actions toward becoming what we WANT to be

SELF-ACTUALIZATION  Self-actualization means obtaining our full potential; becoming confident, eager to express our beliefs, and willing to reach out to others to help them

DIRECT METHODS  Hard work  Setting realistic goals  Cooperating with others  Evaluating effectively

INDIRECT METHODS  Suppression  Projection  Denial  Rationalization  Compensation  *Note: These are unhealthy when used too often, but sometimes allows us to cope!

 Cognitive Psychologists divide the factors that motivate behavior into intrinsic and extrinsic factors.  Intrinsic - factors originating from within ourselves  Extrinsic – factors coming from the outside world  For example, you may read simply because you enjoy the book. This is an intrinsic factor. However, if you read because a teacher assigned the book to you, this is an extrinsic factor. Cognitive Theories

 Extrinsic motivators are often associated with the pressures of society, such as getting an education, having a job/income, etc…  Intrinsic motivators, in contrast, are associated with creativity and enjoyment.  Overtime, intrinsic motivation may decrease if we receive and come to expect intrinsic rewards for the same behavior.  Foe example, a person may love to play the violin for fun, but when he is a paid concert performer, he views the violin as less fun and more “work.”  How has this phenomenon impacted your life? Intrinsic v Extrinsic

 An important intrinsic motivator is the need for self-determination, or the need to feel both competent and in control.  This need frequently conflicts with the pressures of extrinsic motivators.  The goal is to seek a balance between the fulfillment of the two categories of need. Self-determination

 Related to the concept of self- determination is self-efficacy, or the belief that we can or cannot attain a particular goal. In general, the higher the level of self-efficacy, the more we believe we can attain a particular goal and the more likely we are to achieve it as well. Self-efficacy

 Another cognitive theory concerns the need for cognitive dissonance. People are motivated to reduce tension produced by conflicting thoughts or choices. Generally, they will change their attitude to fit the behavioral pattern, as longs as they are in control of their choices and actions.  We’ll talk more about this is Social Psychology. Social Theory

 Sometimes, motives are in conflict. Kurt Lewin classified conflicts into four types.  Approach-Approach – one has to decide between two desirable options, as in a hamburger or pizza for lunch.  Avoidance-Avoidance – People have to choose between two unappealing options, as in American politics (hiyo!)  Approach-Avoidance – Only one choice is presented, but it carries both pluses and minuses (you get into two colleges; one is expensive but prestigious the other is average but cheap)  Multiple Approach-Avoidance – Many options are available, but each has positives and negatives. (you get into four schools, but all have strengths and weaknesses) Kurt Lewin and Conflict