Theories of Development

All scientific knowledge comes from scientific investigation – a four-step process –Identify a problem to be studied –Collect data or research information –Analyze the data –Draw conclusions Diverse but complimentary theories are used for explaining life-span development: –Psychoanalytic theories –Cognitive theories –Ethological theories –Ecological theories

Key points of psychoanalytic theories: –Early experiences and family relationships are very important to development –Unconscious aspects of the mind are considered –Personality is best seen as a developmental process Psychoanalytic Theories

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Personality has 3 parts There are 5 stages of psychosexual development Oedipus complex allows child to identify with same- sex parent Fixation is an unresolved conflict during a stage of development Today’s focus is more on the effects of the unconscious on behavior and less on sexual instincts

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: –There are 8 stages of psychosocial development –Each has a unique developmental task –Developmental change occurs throughout life span –Process of resolving conflicts/crises

Erikson’s StagesDevelopmental Period Trust vs MistrustInfancy (first year) Autonomy vs shame & doubt Infancy (1 to 3 years) Initiative vs guiltEarly childhood (3 to 5 years) Industry vs inferiorityMiddle and late childhood Identity vs identity confusion Adolescence (10 to 20 years) Intimacy vs isolationEarly adulthood (20s, 30s) Generativity vs stagnation Middle adulthood (40s, 50s) Integrity vs despairLate adulthood (60s onward) Figure 2.2 Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages

Pavlov’s classical conditioning includes conditioned and unconditioned responses Watson applies association and generalization Operant conditioning focuses on positive and negative reinforcement Social cognitive theory focuses on observation and imitationSocial cognitive theory focuses on observation and imitation Ethological theory includes imprinting and attachment Behavioral and social cognitive theories

Classical Conditioning Generalization

Operant Conditioning What are the reinforcements to achieve? What happens when there are no controls or reinforcement? Task: Learn to read

Environment Person (cognitive) Behavior Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model Figure 2.4

Bandura’s Modeling/Imitation Child observes someone admired Child imitates behavior that seems rewarded

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory: –Environmental factors influence development –5 environmental systems affect life-span development Eclectic theoretical orientation: –Selects features from other theories –No one theory has all the answers –Each theory can make a contribution to understanding life-span development

Ecological Models Cultural Values, Laws Microsystem connections Family, teachers Child External Resources ChronosystemChronosystem

Research in Life-Span Development

Types of research: –Descriptive: observes and records behavior Laboratory research Naturalistic observation Surveys and interviews Standardized tests Case studies Life-history records Physiological measures

Figure GirlsBoys Percentage parent–child interactions in which the parent explained science concepts Parents’ Explanations of Science to Sons and Daughters at a Science Museum

Families of children with autism initiated significantly more interactions with the child

–Correlational research Measures relationships; not the same as causation –Experimental research Independent variable gets manipulated Dependent variable is the resulting change Typically have random assignment into groups Experimental group is manipulated Control group serves as the “norm” for comparison

Group 2 Married Mothers More aggressive and antisocial children More playful and sociable children Single Mothers Group 1

Personal ratings on depression scale after 6 months Control group (Therapy Only) Participants randomly assigned to experimental and control groups Dependent variable Independent variable Experimental group (Zoloft + Therapy) Principles of Experimental Research

Developmental research-Time –Focuses on the relation of age to some other variable across the life span (e.g., memory) –Cross-sectional approach compares different age groups at one time –Longitudinal approach studies a group over a period of time –Sequential approach combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches –Cohort effects: due to time or era of birth but not due to one’s actual age

Age and Antisocial Behavior Cross-Sectional

Gender and Physical Aggression

Disruptive Behavior 1:22