1.  Five Basic Goals in Research  Basic Research Process  Types of Research

2. Research Methods Being a Wise Consumer of Information:  Media only publishes parts of research when of public interest.  All information for public consumption may be:  Oversimplified, condensed with few details  Distorted or exaggerated  People must consider information carefully:  Separate group from individual outcomes  Do not over generalize from small sample  Look for additional information on a study  Do not attribute causes when none exist  Evaluate the source of information

3. 0 25 5 30 15 10 20 GirlsBoys Percentage parent–child interactions in which the parent explained science concepts Parents’ Explanations of Science to Sons and Daughters at a Science Museum

4. Five Basic Goals in Research  Describe:  Explain: Why did the subject produce the behavior?  Predict: The best predictor of future behavior is past behavior.  Control: What can we do to change the behavior?  Improve:

5. Research Methods Main Types of Psychological Research: Basic: Study of psychological issues in order to seek knowledge for its own sake. Applied: Study of psychological issues that have direct practical significance, application.

6. Research Methods Types of research:  Descriptive: observes and records behavior  Laboratory research  Naturalistic observation  Surveys and interviews  Standardized tests  Case studies  Life-history records  Physiological measures

7. Research Methods Two main divisions of research:  Correlational research-  Measures relationships  No causation  Experimental research-  Independent variable gets manipulated  Dependent variable is the resulting change  Experimental group is manipulated  Control group serves as the “norm” for comparison

8. Research Methods  Time-span research:  Focus on the relation of age to some other variable across the life span.  Cross-sectional approach:  Compares different age groups at one time  Longitudinal approach:  Studies a group over a period of time  Sequential approach:  Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches  Cohort effects:  Due to time or era of birth but not due to one’s actual age

9. Research Methods  Theory: General principle proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related. An idea about a relationship. Research is necessary in order to validate or invalidate a theory.  Experiment: Manipulate a situation in order to prove/disprove a hypothesis.  Meta-Analysis: Summary of past research on a given topic.  Placebo: No treatment given, participant assumes treatment is present.  Confederate: Experimenter assumes the role of a participant or antagonist.

10. Basic Research Process “Too many cookies make penguins go crazy.” 1. Have a question or idea about a relationship. 2. Develop a Null Hypothesis: (H0)  The reverse of what the experimenter believes will happen.  Cookies don’t make penguins go crazy.  Very easy to test this, all you have to do is find one case where this is not so. 3. Develop an Alternative Hypothesis: (H1)  Statement that attempts to describe or explain a given behavior.  Leads to specific predictions of what will happen in very specific situations.  Certain types and quantities of cookies may make specific penguins go crazy.

11. Basic Research Process “Too many cookies make penguins go crazy.” 4. Conduct the Experiment:  Variable: Anything that can be measured or is changed.  Independent Variable: Input variable.  Dependent Variable: Outcome variable.  Empirical Evidence: Can be measured and observed.  Control Condition: No manipulation added.  Operational Definition: How the phenomenon is to be observed and measured.  Principal of Falsifiability: Hypotheses could be disproved if contradictory evidence were observed/introduced. 5. Complete the Result Section:  Collected data from experiment, prove or disprove the null  Statistical Significance: Results are probably true, not due to chance.  Occam’s Razor: When conflicting results/solutions to a given problem occur, the shortest and least complex one is the correct choice

12. Types of Research Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural environment. Can involve counting specific behaviors.  Advantage: Provides more qualitative information than the other methods.  Disadvantage: Presence of an observer modifies the participant’s behavior. No two observers produce the same results. ________________________________________________________ Case Study: Following a single case for an extended period of time.  Advantage: Gather extensive information, both qualitative and quantitative and can be helpful in better understanding rare cases or very specific interventions  Disadvantage: Only one case is involved severely limiting generalization

13. Types of Research Survey: Questionnaires gather info from asking people directly.  Advantage: Can gather large amounts of information in a relatively short time, cost effective.  Disadvantage: Based solely on subjects’ responses which can be inaccurate due to outright lying, misunderstanding of the question, placebo effect, and even the manner in which the question is asked. _______________________________________________________________________ Correlational Study: Determine if a relationship exists, what direction the relationship is, and how strong it is.  Positive Correlation: As one increases the other increases, as one decreases the other decreases.  Negative Correlation: As one increases the other decreases, as one decreases the other increases.  Advantage: Measures the strength of a relationship between two groups.  Disadvantage: Can’t make any assumptions of cause and effect. No knowledge of effect of a third variable.

14. Twin Studies Defined: Studying identical twins separated near birth is one behavioral genetic method.  Example: Gerald and Mark  Met at age 31 after being separated at birth.  Both:  Are volunteer firefighters  Like to hunt, eat Chinese food, and watch John Wayne movies  Drink the same brand of beer, with their hands held the same way (pinky curled) Evaluating Genetic Theories  Reasons for caution:  Not all traits are equally heritable or unaffected by shared environment.  Some studies may underestimate the impact of the environment.  Even traits that are highly heritable are not rigidly fixed.  Genetic predisposition does not imply inevitability.

15. Research Focus Development of:  Motor Skills  Problem Solving  Conceptual Understanding  Moral Reasoning  Identity Formation

16. Research Focus Stages of Development:  Prenatal  Infancy  Toddler  Early Childhood  Childhood  Adolescence  Early Adulthood  Middle Age  Old Age  Death Is age static?