Chapter One The Study of Human Development

Recurring Issues in Human Development Nature Versus Nurture—biological, genetic factors vs. environmental factors Continuity Versus Discontinuity—smooth progression thru life vs. series of abrupt shifts (i.e., personality)

Basic Forces in Human Development: The Biopsychosocial Framework Biological Forces—prenatal dev, brain maturation, puberty, menopause Psychological Forces—internal cognitive, emotional personality factors Sociocultural Forces—interpersonal, societal, cultural, ethnic factors Life-Cycle Forces—differences in how the same event affects people of different ages

Major Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development Psychodynamic—Sigmund Freud Eric Erikson Learning—Watson Skinner Bandura Cognitive—Piaget Kohlberg Ecological & Systems—Bronfenbrenner

Psychodynamic: Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Develops in stages; everyone goes through same stages in same order Oral Stage 0-1 year old Anal Stage 1-3 years old Phallic Stage 3-6 years old Latency Stage 6-puberty Genital Stage puberty-death

Psychodynamic: Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year old) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years old) Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years old) Industry vs. Inferiority (6-Adolescence) Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence) Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood) Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood) Integrity vs. Despair (Late Life)

Concentrates on how learning influences behavior Learning Theory Concentrates on how learning influences behavior Emphasizes the role of experience Stresses the influence of consequences on behavior Recognizes that people learn from watching others

B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning The consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be repeated A reinforcement increases the chance that a behavior will be repeated A punishment decreases the chance that a behavior will be repeated

Social Learning Theory Observational Learning, or Imitation People learn by watching others Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is seen as smart, popular, or talented Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is rewarded for the behavior

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Cognition emphasizes thinking We think about our experiences, trying to understand them Emphasizes how we perceive our world and our experiences

Cognitive-Developmental Theory Emphasizes the development of the thought processes as we mature Two approaches to the development of cognition: We develop our thinking in stages (Piaget, Kohlberg) Like computers, we become more efficient at processing information as we mature (Information-Processing Theory)

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory Cognitive development consists of stages in which children’s understanding of their surroundings becomes increasingly complex and accurate

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years) The Child interacts with the world through sensation and movement Develops the ability to hold a mental representation of objects Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years) Develops the ability to use symbols Egocentric: understands the world only from his/her own perspective

Piaget’s Stages Concrete Operational Thought (7 years to early adolescence) Can use logic and reasoning Cannot accurately consider the hypothetical Formal Operational Thought (Adolescence and beyond) Thinks abstractly Deals with the hypothetical concepts

Information-Processing Theory Uses the computer as a model of how thinking develops Mental Hardware: psychological structures such as memory capacity Mental Software: cognitive abilities that process information and help us to interact with the world

Emphasized the impact of sociocultural influence on child development Vygotsky’s Theory Emphasized the impact of sociocultural influence on child development Focused on how adults convey aspects of their culture to children Viewed development as an “apprenticeship”

Bronfenbrenner’s Theory: An Ecological Approach Views all aspects of human development as interconnected The Microsystem People and objects in the immediate environment (parents, siblings, peers, teachers) The Mesosystem Interaction between different aspect of Microsystems (family environment influence school behavior)

Bronfenbrenner’s Theory: An Ecological Approach The Exosystem Social, environmental, & governmental forces (parent’s work environment influences child’s school behavior) The Macrosystem Culture beliefs/practices, economic conditions, politics influence child’s development

Caption: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach emphasizes the interaction across different systems in which people operate.

Life-Span Perspective There are many factors and one does Current Perspectives Life-Span Perspective There are many factors and one does not adequately explain development. All must be considered Selective Optimization w/Compensation Describes choices that determine and regulate development and aging

Current Perspectives (Cont) The Life-Course Perspective Emphasizes How personal life-events interact with historical influences How individual issues integrate with family issues How earlier life events and the period of history in which they occurred shaped subsequent events and issues

Four Features of the Life-span Approach Multidirectionality Different areas of development grow and decline at the same time Plasticity Skills and abilities can be improved or developed throughout the life-span

Four Features of the Life-span Approach (Cont) Historical Context Historical time periods must be considered in examining development Multiple Causation Biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle changes must be considered

Measurement in Human Development Research Systematic Observation Naturalistic Observation “Real-life” observations Structured Observation Researcher creates a situation likely to result in a type of behavior in which she/he is interested

Evaluating Research Methods Reliability Does this method consistently measure what is being studied? Validity Does this measure provide a true picture of what is being studied?

Representational Sampling Populations Broad groups of people in which researchers may be interested Sample A subset of the population chosen to represent the population

General Research Designs Correlational Studies Measures relationship between variables as they are observed naturally in the world Correlation does not prove causation

Experimental Studies Studies the effect of one variable on another. Studies possible “cause and effect” relationship The Independent Variable is the factor that is being manipulated The Dependent Variable is the behavior that is studied for possible change

Designs For Studying Development Longitudinal Studies Observes or tests one group of individuals over a long period Is expensive and requires a large time commitment Cross-Sectional Studies Observes or tests groups of different ages More time-effective, less expensive, but cannot show small changes of continuity of development

Conducting Research Ethically Minimize and warn of any risks to participants “Informed Consent” Avoid deception Individual results or data must be kept anonymous or confidential

Communicating Research Results Research results are published in scientific journals To be published in journals, research results must be useful, well-done, and original