“Capitulations,” concessions made by sultans to foreign nations. These concessions give the foreign nations favorable advantages in trade and import taxes, and drained resources from the Ottoman Empire.

They often protected the rights of Christians to worship when they were in the Ottoman lands. Treaty of Lausanne (1923) abolished these concession.

Resentment against foreign investments and the imposed trade privileges unprofitable for the Ottomans, caused the Empire to ally with Germany and become part of the Central Powers of World War I.

As the economy declined, some groups scapegoated (blamed) others for their problems. Armenians, a Christian minority, living and working in Anatolia were blamed.

“The Young Turks”, became advocates for a militantly secular Turkish national state as well as for “Turkification” of ethnic minorities. A process of cultural change designed to make all citizens of the empire become part of a common Turkish heritage and culture.

Legal reforms benefited men more than women. Under shariah, women could hold money, gain inheritances, and receive some education. New secular law ended these rights. Tanzimat reforms did not mention women for, military, higher education, or commerce.

Girls attended state primary schools (end of 19 th century). Upper-class girls went to secondary schools, studied fine arts. Not much gender equality.

Napoleon Bonaparte sieged Egypt (1798), but the French had trouble keeping it. Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt caused the Ottoman Empire to lose Egypt as a province. Mamluks, Muhammad Ali, rose to be governor of Egypt.

He reorganized Egypt’s army on a European model. Introduced the practice of “conscription” (compelling all men, to become soldiers).

Muhammad Ali son, Ibrahim, led an Egyptian force to seize Syria and Anatolia ( ). European powers forced the Egyptians to withdraw. Europeans allowed Muhammad Ali’s family to rule in Egypt until 1952.

High taxes forced peasants off their lands. Religious lands also came under government control. Government controlled cotton production. Revenue came for its export.

Ali pushed Egypt to industrialize. Textile factories built to compete with Britain. Armament factories in Cairo, shipyards in Alexandria. Called the first great modern ruler of Egypt.

Ali established schools and sent officers to France for education. Had texts translated from French to Arabic. Started an official newspaper (first in the Islamic world).

That concludes the Sick Old Man of Europe.