2. Fricatives Air is passed through a narrow channel, creating turbulence. Turbulence = noise. English fricatives: Voiceless: [f] [θ] (“theory”) [s] [ ʃ ] (“shoe”) [h] Voiced: [v] [ð] (“this”) [z] [ ʒ ] (“Zsa Zsa”) All English fricatives except (maybe) [h] form voiced- voiceless cognates:  [v]-[f] [ð]-[θ] [z]-[s] [ ʒ ]-[ ʃ ] For each pair: Same place, same manner, different voicing.

FRICATIVES WEAK (not very loud) STRONG ( comparatively loud) (Slit Fricatives) ` ( Groove Fricatives) [f] [v] [θ] [ð] [h] [s] [z] [ ʃ ] [ ʒ ]  Long flat constriction = More circular constriction = Inefficient noise generator Efficient noise generator (noise is weak) (noise is strong)

[f]-[v]: Place = Labiodental (lips-teeth) Flat constriction (slit fricatives); flat (rather than round or grooved) constrictions produce a weak noise. [θ]-[ð]: Place = Linguadental (tongue-teeth) or interdental (linguadental & interdental are synonyms) Flat constriction (slit fricatives); flat (rather than round or grooved) constrictions produce a weak noise

[s]-[z]: Place = alveolar Round-ish, grooved constriction; these produce a strong noise [ ʃ ]-[ ʒ ] Place = Alveopalatal/Palatoalveolar/Prepalatal Round-ish, grooved constriction; these produce a strong noise

[h]: Place = Glottal (whisper) Tongue, lips & jaw don’t have anything in particular to do in the production of [h] since it is a glottal articulation. Since the vocal tract can do whatever it pleases during [h], the tongue, lips & jaw will take the position of the following vowel. [h], then, is simply a whispered vowel: he [hi]: [h] = whispered [i] who [hu]: [h] = whispered [u] hoe [ho]: [h] = whispered [o]....

3. Nasals Vocal tract is closed (at the lips, alveolar ridge, or velum); velum is lowered; acoustic energy flows through the nose rather than mouth. [m]: bilabial [n]: alveolar [ŋ]: velar [ŋ]: Symbol called engma or long n [ŋ] can end words (sing [s ɪ ŋ]; lung [l ʌ ŋ], bang [beŋ], etc.) or appear in the middles of words (singer [s ɪ ŋ ɚ ], sinker [s ɪ ŋk ɚ ], languid [leŋgw ɪ d]), but [ŋ] cannot begin words.

NOTE: Spelling convention: ng = [ŋ], but there is no [g] and no [n] in sing, singer, song, hanger, stirring, bang, etc. A [g] may follow the [ŋ], though: strangle [streŋgəl] Bangor [beŋg ɔɚ ] languid [leŋgw ɪ d] mangle[meŋgəl] jungle[d ʒʌ ŋgəl] [k] following [ŋ] is also common: sinker[s ɪ ŋk ɚ ] lanky[leŋki] blank[bleŋk] clunker[kl ʌ ŋk ɚ ]

4. Affricates There are only 2 on these in English: [t ʃ ] & [d ʒ ] church [t ʃɚ t ʃ ] judge [d ʒʌ d ʒ ] The mechanism of sound production: (1) the vocal tract is completely occluded (with the velum up); the occlusion is released into a short fricative: [ ʃ ] or [ ʒ ]. Affricates are stops followed by short fricatives. Place: Alveopalatal/Palatoalveolar/Prepalatal; the same as [ ʃ ]-[ ʒ ], not the same as [t]-[d]. Place is not alveolar, as indicated in the text.

5. Approximants Two Types of Approximants Liquids Glides (also called semivowels) [r] [l] [w] [j] red [r ɛ d] led [l ɛ d] wed [w ɛ d] yet [j ɛ t] These sounds are vowel-ish consonants, though they are definitely consonants. For [r w j] (i.e., all but [l]), there is a vowel with the same sound quality: [r] : [ ɚ ] [w] : [u] [j] : [i] [r] is the consonant version of [ ɚ ] [w] is the consonant version of [u] [j] is the consonant version of [i]

[l] is called a lateral: [l] is the only lateral consonant in English. [r w j]: these are produced in the same way as [r]: retroflex or bunched, somewhat rounded [w]: high, back, rounded (like [u]) [j]: high, front, retracted lips (like [i]) Notice that these are features of vowel articulation, not features of consonant articulation. But since these really are consonants, somehow we have to force these onto a consonant articulation chart using features such as alveolar, palatal, alveopalatal, etc. [r] = alveolar (sometimes palatal) ; [w] = bilabial and velar; [j] = palatal Classifications are somewhat arbitrary, but you still have to learn them.

Places of Articulation: Labial Alveolar Dental Labiodental Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Laryngeal