© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers 8 Social and Personality Development in Early Childhood This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Freud –Anal Stage Toilet training battles Control over bodily functions –Phallic Stage Oedipus or Electra Complex –Identification with the same sex parent Theories of Social and Personality Development Psychoanalytic Perspectives

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Erikson –Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Centered around toddler’s new mobility and desire for autonomy –Initiative versus Guilt Ushered in by new cognitive skills Developing conscience dictates boundaries Theories of Social and Personality Development Psychoanalytic Perspectives

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Social and emotional changes facilitated by enormous growth in cognitive abilities. Person Perception –Ability to classify others Make judgments about children similar to adults Use traits to describe people or patterns of behavior Preschooler perceptions may vary from day to day. Theories of Social and Personality Development Social-Cognitive Perspectives

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Understanding Rule Categories –Social conventions Rules that serve to regulate behavior –Moral rules Regulations based on individual or society’s sense of right and wrong –Preschoolers respond differently to social rules and moral rules between 2 and 3 –Understanding develops on basis of increased cognitive capabilities and adult emphasis of moral transgressions Theories of Social and Personality Development Social-Cognitive Perspectives

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Understanding Others’ Intentions –Recent research suggests that children do understand intentions to some degree. Understand that punishment is for intentional acts Can make judgments about actors’ intentions when faced with abstract problems and with punishment But still can be bound by consequences in their judgments Theories of Social and Personality Development Social-Cognitive Perspectives

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 8.1 A Test of Children’s Understanding of Intentionality FIGURE TO COME

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Self-Concept –Categorical Self Focus on visible characteristics –Emotional Self Acquisition of emotional self-regulation –Associated with peer popularity –Lack of control associated with aggression –Ability to obey moral rules –Associated with emergence of empathy –Social Self Child sees self as player in social games –Learns many social scripts, which provide appropriate situational behaviors Personality and Self-Concept

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Psychoanalytic Explanations –Identification with same sex parent Social-Cognitive Explanations –Linked to gender-related behavior Becomes motivated to exhibit same-sex behaviors –Parents shape sex role behaviors and attitudes Gender Schema Theory –Learn gender scripts –Learn likes and dislikes of own gender –Develops a complex view of other gender Gender Development

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Gender identity –Child’s ability to label his or her own sex correctly Gender stability –Understanding that you are the same gender throughout life True gender constancy –Recognition that someone stays the same gender even though appearances may change with clothing Gender Development Gender Concept Sequence

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 8.2 Gender Stereotyping in a Child’s Drawing

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Cross-cultural gender stereotypes –Women associated with gentleness, weakness, appreciativeness, and soft-heartedness –Men associated with aggression, strength, cruelty, and coarseness. –Children learn these stereotypes by 3 or 4 Can assign stereotypical behaviors to jobs, toys, and activities –By age 5, children begin to associate personality traits with gender Gender Development Sex-Role Knowledge

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Develops earlier than ideas about gender –18 – 24 months – children prefer sex-stereotyped toys –Age 3 – children prefer same-sex friends Learn from older same-sex children Sex-typed behaviors are learned differently. –Girls use an enabling style Supporting a friend, expressing agreement, making suggestions –Boys use a constricting or restrictive style Derails inappropriate interactions, bringing them to an end Gender Development Sex-Typed Behavior

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 8.3 Gender and Playmate Preferences

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Securely attached preschoolers exhibit fewer behavior problems Insecurely attached children display more anger and aggression at daycare and preschool By age 4, children form goal-corrected partnerships –Relationships continues to exist even when the partners are apart Family Relationships and Structure Attachment

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Diana Baumrind –Focused on 4 dimensions Warmth or nurturance Clarity and consistency of rules Maturity of expectations and demands Communications between child and parent –Three parenting styles Authoritarian Permissive Authoritative Maccoby and Miller add uninvolved, neglecting Parenting Styles

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 8.4 Control, Acceptance, Parenting Style

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers High levels of demand and control Low levels of warmth and communication Consequences –Children do well in school –Have lower self-esteem –Typically less skilled with peers –Some appear subdued –Others show high aggressiveness –Traits last well into high school Parenting Styles Authoritarian

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers High in warmth and communication Low in demand and control Consequences –Do slightly worse in school during adolescence –Likely to be more aggressive –Somewhat more immature –Less likely to take responsibility –Less independent Parenting Styles Permissive

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers High in warmth and communication High in demand and control Consequences –Most consistently positive outcomes –Children show higher self-esteem –More independent –More likely to comply with parental requests –Show more altruistic behaviors –Self-confident and achievement oriented –Get better grades in school Parenting Styles Authoritative

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Maccoby and Martin add the Uninvolved Type –Low in levels of demand and control –Low in levels of warmth and communication –Consequences Most consistently negative outcomes Disturbances in social relationships More impulsive and antisocial in adolescence Less competent with peers Much less achievement-oriented in school Parenting Styles

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 8.5 Parenting Style and Grades

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Authoritative Parents –More likely to be involved in child’s school –Inductive discipline Strategy in which parents explain to the child why a punished behavior is wrong Helps children in preschool to gain control of their behavior and gain perspective of other’s feelings Parenting Styles Effects

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Authoritative pattern –More common in white families –Least common among Asian Americans –More common among middle class –Usually more common among intact families –Positive outcomes seen in all ethnic groups Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 8.6 Social Class, Ethnicity, and Parenting Style

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Authoritarian pattern –Asian Americans Associated with high levels of school achievement in Asian American children Helps children to succeed economically Helps to enable children to maintain ethnic identity Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Authoritarian pattern –African American families Aware of social forces such as racism that impede social success Adopt authoritarian pattern to enhance children’s potential for success High correlation between authoritarian pattern and self- control among African American children More common among poor families Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers What kind of parenting style was used to raise you? What effects did it have on your development? What style will you use as a parent? What can single parents do to improve the developmental progress of their children? Questions to Ponder

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Family Structure: Diversity in Two-Parent and Single- Parent Families –Only 50% of U.S. children live with both biological parents –20% to 30% of two-parent families are created when a divorced or never-married parent marries another person –Many children from two-parent families have experienced single- parenting –Since the 1990’s, higher numbers of single mothers are middle class professionals –Teenage mothers are likely to live with parents Family Relationships and Structure

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 8.7 Ethnicity and Family Structure

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers More common among African Americans and Native Americans –These groups have higher rates of births to single mothers 75% of births are to mothers over age 20 Single mothers are less likely to marry A lack of economic opportunities for men hinders their taking on family responsibilities Grandparents and other relatives traditionally help support single mothers Family Structure and Ethnicity Single Parents

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 8.8 Ethnicity and Births to Unmarried Women

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Custodial Grandparents –Stresses of parenting and the physical effects of aging cause more anxiety and depression in grandparents Gay and Lesbian Parenting –Concerns about children’s sex-role identity and orientation are not supported by research Their children do not differ from other children on measures of cognitive and social development Other Types of Family Structures

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Exhibit declines in school performance Show more aggressive, defiant, or depressed behaviors More likely to engage in criminal behavior in adolescence Children in step-parent families have higher rates of delinquency, more behavior problems, and lower grades Divorce Impact on children

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Higher risk of mental problems in adulthood Lack financial and emotional support needed for success in college Struggle with fears of intimacy in relationships More likely to divorce themselves Short term: effects are more severe for boys Divorce Impact on children

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Supports suggestion that optimal family structure is two biological parents Single parenting when poverty is an issue correlates with negative effects on development Children of single parents –Twice as likely to drop out of high school –Twice as likely to have a child by 20 –Less likely to have a steady job –Preschoolers are less cognitively and socially advanced Family Structure Effects Psychological research

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Solitary play –All ages of children Parallel play –14 – 18 months Cooperative play –3 – 4 years old Peer Relationships Play

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Associated with the development of social skills. Group entry –Poor group entry skills lead to aggressive behaviors –Children with poor group entry skills often rejected by peers –Social skills training helps to gain acceptance for rejected children Peer Relationships Play

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Behavior intended to hurt another Initial aggression in 2 – 3-year-olds –Hitting and throwing things –Instrumental – intended to obtain something a child wants Older children –Hostile aggression – used to hurt another or to gain advantage –With good verbal skills comes verbal aggression –Physical aggression declines as dominance hierarchies emerge Aggression

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Aggression-frustration hypothesis –Declines with communication skills Reinforcement and modeling of aggression Trait aggression –Personality style that develops as a way of life May have genetic basis Seen in abusive families Lack of affection in families Aggressive children lag behind in understanding other children’s intentions, can improve with training Development of aggression

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Purpose is to help another person Development of Prosocial Behavior –Evident at 2 – 3 years of age –Some behaviors increase with age –Children who show altruistic behaviors are popular with peers Parental Influences –Loving and warm family climate –Explain consequences clearly to children –Provide prosocial attributions – positive statements about the underlying cause for helpful behavior Prosocial Behavior and Friendships

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Friendships –Emerges by age 3 –By age 4, children spend 30% of time with another child –Become more stable with time –Early friendships related to social competence Prosocial Behavior and Friendships