1. Chapter 13 – Sex Differences Sex Stereotypes = general beliefs based on sex Masculine stereotype - Instrumental behavior - the active provider

2. Feminine stereotype - Expressive behavior - the nurturer

3. Maintenance of stereotypes 2 biases Confirmatory bias Note examples of stereotype & view as proof Selective inattention Inconsistencies ignored/explained

4. Sex stereotypes are schemas that organize our thinking Can distort thinking & memory - easy to remember confirming examples - hard to remember contradictory ones

5. Impact of stereotypes Evaluate people more positively if consistent with stereotype Evaluate harshly if violate stereotype

6. Men seen as able, women as giving effort for same male-typed achievement Women still earn less for same job

7. Origins of Stereotypes Home - parents treat kids differently from birth

8. School: Teachers respond differentially - boys: success = ability failure = lack of effort - girls: success = effort & neatness failure = lack of ability

9. Peers - children intolerant of sex-inconsistent behavior Media - extremes of sex-typed behavior - more sex-typed than real life - children’s programming is the most sex-typed

10. Cross-cultural results 110 non-industrialized societies consistent effects of sex stereotyping in socialization

11. % Societies where pressure greater AttributeFor BoysFor Girls Nurturance 082 Obedience 335 Responsibility1161 Achievement87 3 Self-reliance85 0

12. First goal is for all children to behave Second goal is to socialize child to conform to sex stereotype

13. Actual Sex Differences Physical differences - Sex characteristics - Size, strength

14. Abilities Verbal abilities - girls

15. Math abilities - girls in elementary school - boys during adolescence Visual-spatial abilities - boys

16. Psychological/Behavioral Differences Aggression - boys Activity Level - boys

17. Fear, timidity, & (lower) risk-taking - girls Developmental vulnerability - boys

18. Emotional sensitivity & nurturance - girls & boys Compliance - girls

19. Nature & size of the group differences - large overlap between groups - differences are consistent but small - differences smaller than 20 years ago - almost all differences are qualified - individual variability

20. Reasons for differences - innate, biological differences - socialization

21. Sum:differences exist BUTsexes are more alike than different - more unlike individuals of own sex than average member of other sex - cannot make predictions about individuals

22. Sex Typing Identification with own sex Gender/sex identity - knowledge of one’s sex and its permanence

23. Initially categorize on superficial characteristics By age 3 categorize self accurately - but do not realize sex is permanent By 5-7 know sex is unchanging & have stable identity based on sex

24. Sex/gender roles - beliefs about what the sexes are supposed to be like & do Knowledge -by 2.5, some -by 10, complete

25. Adherence to stereotypes -in preschool, some flexibility -by 6, no deviation allowed -by 10, more flexible again -12-15 = intolerance -young adults = more flexible -middle age = less sex-typed

26. Transition times = more rigid => more rigid at times when sex identification is more relevant

27. Sex-Typed Behavior Favor activities typed for own sex By 14-22 months, prefer sex-typed toys 18-24 mo = no opposite-sex toys By 2 years for girls & 3 for boys, prefer same-sex playmates Maccoby & children’s play styles

28. Sex differences - boys adopt sex-typed behavior & preferences quicker - girls more likely to retain cross-sex interests Boys = more pressure to conform

29. Stability of sex-typing - fairly stable from childhood to adulthood - but some flexibility

30. Theories of Sex Role Development Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud) - social & biological factors - everyone is bisexual at birth - sexual identity = identification with same- sex parent

31. Biosocial Theory (Money & Ehrhardt) - biology channels development - via child’s & others’ reactions

32. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, Mischel) - parents influence sex development by: 1.direct instruction - reinforcement & punishment - encourage sex-typed behavior by age 2 - dads/peers

33. 2.observational learning - imitate same-sex models - reinforced for this imitation BUT - doesn’t address children’s own motivation

34. Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Kohlberg) - sex-role development depends on cognitive development - children actively socialize themselves - 1 st establish stable gender identity - then seek models & information

35. - Role of developing cognitive abilities & child’s motivation - encourage sex-role development at 6+ years -BUTchildren show sex-typed behavior before they have stable identity

36. Gender-Schema Theory — cognitive (Martin & Halverson) - children motivated to be consistent - self-socialize as soon as have basic gender identity (age 2-3) - role of gender schemas

37. Integration - biosocial, social learning & cognitive Biosocial - biology leads people to label children by sex & treat differentially Social learning - early (0-3) sex-typing from others’ teaching & encouragement Cognitive - cognitive milestones & child’s own desires aid sex-typing (age 2-3+)