1. Psychosocial Development In Early Childhood
Chapter 11

2. Gender Gender Identity Gender Differences
Psychological and behavioral differences between males and females
Most pronounced difference is aggression
Overall IQ scores show no gender differences
Gender identity, awareness of one's femaleness or maleness, is an important aspect of the developing self-concept.

3. Gender Gender Differences
Females tend to do better at verbal tasks (but not analogies), at mathematical computation, and at tasks requiring fine motor and perceptual skills
Males excel in most spatial abilities and in abstract mathematical and scientific reasoning
Gender identity, awareness of one's femaleness or maleness, is an important aspect of the developing self-concept.

4. Gender Perspectives on Gender Development: Nature and Nurture
Gender roles: culturally influenced
Gender stereotypes

5. Gender Socialization-Based Approach
Peer groups: a major influence on gender-typing; boys more strongly influenced
Culture influences gender
In the U.S., television is major transmitter of cultural attitudes toward gender
Children’s books transmit gender attitudes
Socializing agents mesh with biological tendencies and cognitive understandings

6. Play: The Business of Early Childhood
Children engage in different types of play at different ages
Children’s play is classified by its content and its social dimension
3 levels are notable

7. Play: The Business of Early Childhood
Types of Play:
Functional play: repetitive movements
Constructive play: using objects or materials to make something

8. Play: The Business of Early Childhood
Types of Play:
Pretend play (aka: fantasy play, dramatic play, or imaginative play) involves imaginary people or situations (symbolism)
Formal games with rules: organized games with known procedures and penalties

9. Play: The Business of Early Childhood
How Gender Influences Play
The tendency toward sex segregation in play appears universal across cultures
Sex segregation increases in middle childhood
Boys like active, forceful, more spontaneous play in large groups

10. Play: The Business of Early Childhood
How Gender Influences Play
Girls prefer quieter, cooperative, and more structured play with one or a few playmates
How Culture Influences Play
The frequency of specific forms of play differs across cultures; influenced by play environments reflecting cultural values

11. Parenting Forms of Discipline
Reinforcement and punishment: external and internal
Corporal punishment: physical force
Power assertion: physical or verbal enforcement of parental control
Inductive techniques: designed to induce desirable behavior by reasoning

12. Parenting Forms of Discipline
Withdrawal of love: may include ignoring, isolating, or showing dislike for a child
Induction is usually the most effective
Power assertion is the least effective
Psychological aggression: verbal attacks causing psychological harm

13. Parenting Parenting Styles
Authoritarian: values control and unquestioning obedience.
Permissive: values self-expression and self-regulation.
Authoritative: values individuality but also stresses social constraints.
Neglectful or uninvolved: focuses on parents’ own needs rather than child’s
Why does authoritative parenting seem to enhance children's competence? It may be because authoritative parents set realistic standards. By making clear, consistent rules, they let children know what is expected of them
Baumrind's findings were correlational; they merely establish associations between each parenting style and a particular set of child behaviors. They do not show that different styles of child rearing cause children to be more or less competent.

14. Parenting Parenting Styles Are there ethnic group differences? SES?
Is there truly a ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ way to parent?
Recent research
Why does authoritative parenting seem to enhance children's competence? It may be because authoritative parents set realistic standards. By making clear, consistent rules, they let children know what is expected of them
Baumrind's findings were correlational; they merely establish associations between each parenting style and a particular set of child behaviors. They do not show that different styles of child rearing cause children to be more or less competent.