Chapter 13 Sex Differences and Gender-Role Development

INTRODUCTION Sex – person’s biological identity Chromosomes; physical manifestations of identity; hormonal influences Gender – person’s social and cultural identity as male or female Gender typing – process of acquiring a gender identity and the motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate for their biological sex

CATEGORIZING MALES AND FEMALES: GENDER ROLE STANDARDS Gender role standard – value, motive, or behavior considered more appropriate for members of one sex than the other Expressive role – female – kind, nurturing, cooperative, sensitive to others’ needs Instrumental role – male – dominant, assertive, independent, and competitive

Table 13.1 Sex Differences in the Socialization of Five Attributes in 110 Societies. NOTE: The percentages for each attribute do not add to 100 because some of the societies did not place differential pressures on boys and girls with respect to that attribute. For example, 18% of the societies for which pertinent data were available did not differentiate between the sexes in the socialization of nurturance. SOURCE: Adapted from BARRY, BACON, & CHILD, 1957.

SOME FACTS AND FICTIONS ABOUT SEX DIFFERENCES Actual Psychological Differences Between the Sexes Verbal Ability – girls are superior Visual/Spatial Abilities – boys are superior Evident by 4, persists across life span Mathematical Abilities In adolescence, boys better at arithmetic reasoning Girls better at computational skills

Figure 13.1 A spatial task for which sex differences in performance have been found. FROM LINN & PETERSEN, 1985.

SOME FACTS AND FICTIONS ABOUT SEX DIFFERENCES Aggression Beginning at age 2, boys are more physically and verbally aggressive Girls more likely to display covert aggression

SOME FACTS AND FICTIONS ABOUT SEX DIFFERENCES Other Sex Differences Activity level – boys are more physically active (even before birth) Fear, timidity, and risk-taking – girls are more fearful, timid, and take fewer risks No difference in cognitive impulsivity Developmental vulnerability – boys are more vulnerable to prenatal and perinatal hazards and disease

SOME FACTS AND FICTIONS ABOUT SEX DIFFERENCES Emotional expressivity / sensitivity Beginning in toddlerhood Boys express more anger Girls express most other emotions more frequently Compliance – girls are more compliant

SOME FACTS AND FICTIONS ABOUT SEX DIFFERENCES Conclusions Differences reflect group averages Differences are small Differences are most apparent at the extremes Males and females are much more psychologically similar than they are different

Figure 13.2 These two distributions of scores-one for males, one for females-give some idea of the size of the gap between the sexes in abilities for which sex differences are consistently found. Despite a small difference in average performance, the scores of males and females overlap considerably. APAPTED FROM HYDE, FENNEMA, & LAMON, 1990.

CULTURAL MYTHS Most gender-role stereotypes are “cultural myths” No basis in fact Due to well-ingrained cognitive schemas Interpret and distort behavior

CULTURAL MYTHS Do Cultural Myths Contribute to Sex Differences in Ability/Vocational Opportunity? Self-fulfilling prophecy actually promotes sex differences in cognitive performance Home Influences Parents expect sons to outperform daughters in math Son’s successes are due to ability, daughter’s due to hard work

CULTURAL MYTHS Home Influences, continued Children internalize parent’s views, boys become self-confident Girls lose interest in math, due to perceived lack of ability Scholastic Influences Teachers have similar views affecting children in a similar manner

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Development of the Gender Concept By age 2 ½ to 3, accurately label oneself as a boy or girl 5 to 7 years – gender is unchanging

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Development of Gender-Role Stereotypes Present at 2 to 3 years, once children can label pictures of children as boys or girls 3 to 7 – view gender-role standards as rules 8 to 9 – more flexible, distinction between moral rules and gender-role standards

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Cultural Influences Collectivist societies tend to encourage conforming to gender-role standards Adolescent Thinking About Gender Stereotypes Less flexible again; increased pressure to conform – gender intensification Later in high school, may be more flexible again

Figure 13.3 Children’s rankings of the wrongness of gender-role transgressions (such as a boy’s wearing nail polish) and violations of moral rules (such as pushing another child from a swing). Notice that children of all ages deplore immoral acts but that only kindergartners and adolescents view gender-role violations as wrong. Elementary school children come to think about gender-role standards in a more flexible way than they did earlier in life, but adolescents become concerned about the psychological implications of deviating from one’s “proper” gender identity. ADAPTED FROM STODDARD & TURIEL, 1985.

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Development of Gender-Typed Behavior 14 to 22 months – prefer gender appropriate toys Gender Segregation 2 years, girls prefer playing with girls 3 years, boys prefer playing with boys Due to differences in play styles Cognitive and social-cognitive development

Figure 13.4 Two- to 3-year-old toddlers already prefer playmates of their own sex. Boys are much more social with boys than with girls, whereas girls are more outgoing with girls than with boys. ADAPTED FROM JACKLIN & MACCOBY, 1978.

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Sex Differences in Gender-Typed Behavior Males have greater status Males feel stronger pressure to adhere to gender appropriate codes Most girls do comply with prescriptions for the feminine role by adolescence Be attractive to opposite sex Concern of others evaluations

Table 13.2 Percentages of Boys and Girls Who Requested Popular “Masculine” and “Feminine” Items from Santa Claus. SOURCE: Adapted from Richardson & Simpson, 1982.

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING Subcultural Variations in Gender-Typing Middle class adolescents hold more flexible gender-role attitudes then low SES peers African American children hold less stereotyped views of women than European American children Both due to differences in education and family life

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Evolutionary Theory Males and females face different evolutionary pressures Natural selection created fundamental differences in male and female roles Females need to be nurturing Males need spatial skills for hunting

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Criticisms of the Evolutionary Approach Applies to differences that apply cross-culturally Ignores differences limited to cultures or historical periods Social roles hypothesis Cultures assign roles based on gender Socialization practices

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Money & Ehrhardt’s Biosocial Theory of Gender Differentiation and Development Inherit X or Y chromosome from father If Y, testes secrete testosterone and MIS Resulting in male genitals At birth, social factors become important Child is labeled by society At puberty sex characteristics and urges combine with label

Figure 13.5 Critical events in Money and Ehrhardt’s biosocial theory of sex typing. FROM MONEY & EHRHARDT, 1972.

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Evidence for Biological Influences on Gender-Role Development Genetic influences 50% of the differences in masculine, 0-20% of the differences in feminine self-concepts Strong masculine self-concept and experience with spatial toys increases abilities

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Hormonal influences If females are exposed to excess androgen prenatally, result is masculinized external genitalia Alters play behavior Increases interest in same-sex relationships Influences career and family choices

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Evidence for Social-Labeling Influences Surgery and gender reassignment are generally successful for androgenized females Prior to 18 months of age After age 3, very difficult Masculine gender typing Labeling of self as a boy

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Cultural influences Mead’s study of tribal societies Arapesh – both males and females were taught to be expressive Mundugumor – both genders were taught to be “masculine” Tchambuli – from Western standards, males more feminine, females more masculine

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT A psychobiosocial viewpoint Prenatal hormone exposure influences brain development Creates different sensitivities for males and females Coupled with others’ beliefs, provides more exposure to gender consistent materials

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Males become gender typed as they identify with their father to resolve the Oedipus complex Fathers encourage feminine behavior in females (modeled after mother) Lack of research support

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Social Learning Theory Direct tuition – children are encouraged and rewarded for gender-appropriate behaviors Parents begin the process Siblings and peers reinforce it

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Observational learning – children adopt the attitudes and behaviors of same-sex models Also important is the label attached to the attitude or behavior Same-sex models become more important at ages 5 to 7, when gender is unchanging aspect of the self Media influences

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Children first establish a stable gender identity Basic gender identity: By age 3, label themselves as a boy or girl Gender stability: Occurs next

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Gender consistency: By 5-7, gender is consistent across situations After achieving gender consistency Children actively seek out same-sex models to determine how to act

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Gender-typing begins well before children acquire a mature gender identity Gender reassignment is very difficult after age 3

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT Gender Schema Theory (Martin & Halverson) Children acquire a basic gender identity Motivates child to learn about the sexes and create gender schemas Begin as simple in-group/out-group schemas Also create an own-sex schema Schemas serve as scripts for processing social information

Figure 13. 6 Gender-schema theory in action Figure 13.6 Gender-schema theory in action. A young girl classifies new information according to an in-group/out-group schema as either “for boys” or “for girls.” Information about boys’ toys and activities is ignored, but information about toys and activities for girls in relevant to the self and so is added to an ever-larger own-sex schema. ADAPTED FROM MARTIN & HALVERSON, 1987.

THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT An Integrative Theory Biological theories account for major biological developments Social-theories account for differential reinforcement processes Cognitive development explains the growth of categorization skills Gender schemas are also important as are models as children age

Table 13.3 An Overview of the Gender-Typing Process from the Perspective of an Integrative Theorist.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY: A PRESCRIPTION FOR THE 21st CENTURY? Historically, masculinity and femininity were at opposite ends of a single dimensions Androgyny – sees them as 2 separate dimensions, allowing individuals to be high in both masculine and feminine traits

Figure 13.7 Categories of sex-role orientation based on viewing masculinity and femininity as separate dimensions of personality.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY: A PRESCRIPTION FOR THE 21st CENTURY? Do Androgynous People Really Exist? In a college student sample 33% were masculine men or feminine women 30% were androgynous 27% undifferentiated or gender-type reversed

Table 13.4 Sample Items from a Gender-Role Inventory for Grade-school Children. Source: Adapted from Boldizar, 1991.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY: A PRESCRIPTION FOR THE 21st CENTURY? Are There Advantages to Being Androgynous? More highly adaptable to the situation Higher self-esteem More likeable Perceived as better adjusted The masculine traits are more important for adjustment

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY: A PRESCRIPTION FOR THE 21st CENTURY? Applications: On Changing Gender Role Attitudes and Behavior Parents must teach that biological sex is unimportant other than for reproduction Delay exposure to gender stereotypes Interventions work best with younger children Programs work best if the adult in charge is male