Learning Learning is not attained by chance; it must be sought for with ardor and attended to with diligence. Abigail Adams

Learning Relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior resulting from experience 4 types of learning Habituation Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Observational learning They all operate under the same principle – learning by association

Habituation Tendency to become familiar with a stimulus merely as a result of repeated exposure Orienting reflex Eyes widen, eyebrows rise, muscles tighten, heart beats faster, brain-waves indicate heightened physiological arousal Effect weakens with continued presentation of stimulus – we habituate Primitive form of learning Found in all organisms Decreases the power of reward to motivate

PRINCIPLES

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) Stimulus elicits a Response [S  R] EXAMPLE : Bell rings, students leave!

UCS  UCR NS + UCS  UCR CS  CR THE FORMULA An unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response A neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response A conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response IN OTHER WORDS

Experiment time! A hop, skip, and a jump!

Go over Classical Conditioning worksheet – numbers 1-10 _____ → _____ UCS UCR _____ + _____ → _____ NSUCSUCR _____ → _____ CSCR Loud Noise Startle Loud Noise Balloon

Classical Conditioning A tendency to connect events that occur together in time and space Pavlov ( ) Psychic secretions led to classical conditioning, though unintentionally A stimulus comes to elicit a response that it doesn’t normally elicit How does this come about? Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR)

Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning Acquisition It takes some number of paired trials for the learning (or acquisition) of a CR Key factors: order and timing of presentation Extinction The elimination of a learned response by removal of the US or reinforcement Stimulus Generalization The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the CS

I don’t care if she is a tape dispenser. I love her! Stimulus generalization

Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning Acquisition It takes some number of paired trials for the learning (or acquisition) of a CR Key factors: order and timing of presentation Extinction The elimination of a learned response by removal of the US or reinforcement Generalization The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the CS Discrimination The ability to distinguish between different stimuli

1. Acquisition The process of developing a learned response

2. Extinction The diminishing of a learned response Continuously presenting the CS without the UCS

3. Generalization Producing the same response to two similar stimuli The more similar the substitute stimulus is to the original used in conditioning, the stronger the generalized response Example: Little Albert

4. Discrimination Producing different responses to two similar stimuli

Little Albert – Before Conditioning

Little Albert – During Conditioning

Little Albert – After Conditioning

Little Albert - Generalization

Things to keep in mind… Classical – associate 2 things, thus anticipate events Lightening.... Thunder! Unconditioned means unlearned Associations should be natural Response can be the same, but isn’t always Contingency – CS should precede UCS Simultaneous pairing takes longer and isn’t as powerful Backwards pairing rarely works

Things to keep in mind… Single-trial (or minimal-trial) learning Phobias Little Albert Taste aversions Cancer patients & chemotherapy

Applying Classical Conditioning Conditioned Fears We have preferences for some fears They are learned more quickly and the associations last longer, even during the extinction phase Social Behaviors People form strong positive and negative attitudes toward neutral objects by virtue of their links to emotionally charged stimuli Immune System Preliminary research shows that we can slow/bolster the immune system through classical conditioning

Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning Associate response with its consequence Behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequences Law of effect Responses followed by positive outcomes are repeated whereas those followed by negative outcomes are not

Operant Conditioning Skinner boxes Behavioral contingencies Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Extinction Punishment

Reinforcement Reinforcer A consequence that increases the likelihood that behavior will occur again Positive reinforcement Providing a positive stimulus Studying earns you a good grade Premack principle More probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for less probable behavior Negative reinforcement Removing an aversive stimulus Fastening our seatbelts to turn of the buzzer

Punishment A consequence that decreases the likelihood that behavior will occur again Positive punisher Providing an aversive stimulus Scolding a child, shocking a lab rat for pressing the response lever Negative punisher Removing a positive stimulus Taking food away from a hungry rat

Shaping and Extinction Shaping Encouraging a new behavior by reinforcing successive approximations This is how trainers get animals to do new tricks Extinction As in classical conditioning, failure to reward the learned behavior will eventually lead to a cessation of that behavior If a vending machine stops giving you a Coke, you’ll stop putting your money into it

Things to keep in mind... Primary vs. secondary reinforcers Primary – stimuli that are innately reinforcing Secondary – stimuli that are rewarding because of their association with primary reinforcers Why don’t the behaviors just keep occurring? Discriminative stimulus Relative degree of satiation

Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Learning occurs rapidly Subject to rapid extinction when discontinued Partial Fixed-Interval (FI) Variable-Interval (VI) Fixed-Ratio (FR) Variable-Ratio (VR)

Behavioral Contingencies Type Consequence Prob. of behavior Example Positive reinforce Add desirable Increase Study and get an “A” Negative reinforce Remove undesirable Increase Go to dentist; filling removes pain Extinction Fail to add desirable Decrease Say hi. No response. Stop saying hi “Positive” Punishment Add undesirable Decrease Hangover “Negative” Punishment Remove desirable Decrease Get benched for fighting

Observational Learning Not all learning comes from direct experience! Sometimes we watch others & see what happens… Older siblings, peers, & parents Vicarious rewards & punishments Also: intrinsic rewards & punishments

Albert Bandura Bobo doll studies 2 stages of observational learning Acquisition Performance 4 steps of observational learning Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation