1. 4 th Edition Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-1 Learning Chapter 5

2. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-2 What is Learning? Learning occurs when experience produces a relatively permanent change in behavior.

3. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-3 Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning involves pairing an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which automatically elicits an unconditioned response (UCR), with a conditioned stimulus (CS), which is neutral at the start of conditioning. Several pairings during an acquisition phase lead to a situation in which the CS presented by itself elicits a conditioned response (CR).

4. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-4 Classical Conditioning Several pairings during an acquisition phase lead to a situation in which the CS presented by itself elicits a conditioned response (CR).

5. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-5 Classical Conditioning The classically conditioned response is eliminated or extinguished when the UCS is removed or not presented; this process is called extinction.

6. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-6 Classical Conditioning Spontaneous recovery of the CR occurs when time is allowed to pass between extinction sessions.

7. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-7 Classical Conditioning Generalization occurs when CRs are elicited by stimuli that are similar to the CS. Discrimination is the opposing process; it involves responding only to the appropriate CS.

8. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-8 Classical Conditioning John Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrated that emotions can be learned by classically conditioning 9-month-old Little Albert to fear a white rat.

9. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-9 Classical Conditioning This child exhibited a phobia, which is a fear for certain activities, objects, or situations. The research conducted by Watson and Rayner would not be considered ethical by present-day standards.

10. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-10 Classical Conditioning Our understanding of classical conditioning has been subject to revision since Pavlov introduced the basic processes. For example, although the association of CS with UCS is important in establishing conditioning, the real key is the degree to which the CS predicts occurrence of the UCS. Previous trials of a CS-UCS pairing can serve to block the effectiveness of a second CS.

11. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-11 Classical Conditioning Previous trials of a CS-UCS pairing can serve to block the effectiveness of a second CS.

12. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-12 Classical Conditioning For many species, the pairing of a novel taste with the experience of illness results in learning an aversion to that taste.

13. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-13 Classical Conditioning Taste-aversion learning occurs readily in humans; birds, however, more readily associate a color with illness. Preparedness is evident when some species are more likely to form certain associations than others.

14. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-14 Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning occurs when an organism performs a target response that is followed by a reinforcer, which increases the probability that the behavior (target response) will occur again.

15. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-15 Operant Conditioning All reinforcers increase the frequency of the response they follow. Positive reinforcers are presented after the target response has been made; negative reinforcers are withdrawn or taken away after the target response has been made.

16. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-16 Operant Conditioning

17. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-17 Operant Conditioning Primary reinforcers (for example, food) satisfy basic biological needs; secondary (conditioned) reinforcers (for example, money) acquire their power to reinforce behavior by being associated with primary reinforcers.

18. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-18 Operant Conditioning Complex responses may be acquired gradually through the process of shaping (successive approximations). Psychologists can keep track of the rate of responding by using a cumulative record, which keeps track of all target responses made by an organism across time.

19. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-19 Operant Conditioning Once a behavior has been acquired, it may be reinforced according to a particular schedule of reinforcement. When a ratio schedule is in effect, the number of responses is important.

20. Operant Conditioning Fixed-ratio (FR) schedules require that a set number of responses be made before a reinforcer is delivered. Variable-ratio (VR) schedules require that the participant perform differing numbers of responses to obtain a reinforcer. With an Interval schedule, a certain amount of time must pass before a response is reinforced.

21. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-21 Operant Conditioning With a fixed-interval (FI) schedule, the time interval is constant. The time interval changes after each reinforcer is delivered when a variable-interval (VI) schedule is used. Ratio schedules generally produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules.

22. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-22 Operant Conditioning Operant responses that are not reinforced each time during training take much longer to extinguish than ones that have received continuous reinforcement. This phenomenon is known as the partial (intermittent) reinforcement effect.

23. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-23 Operant Conditioning A discriminative stimulus signals that responses will be reinforced. Behavior is said to be under stimulus control when responding occurs only when the discriminative stimulus is present.

24. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-24 Operant Conditioning The opposite of reinforcement, punishment, involves presentation or withdrawal of stimuli called punishers, which results in a suppression of the target behavior.

25. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-25 Cognitive and Social Perspectives On Learning Insight learning involves restructuring our perceptual stimuli to achieve the solution to a problem. Such perceptual restructuring and solutions typically occur rapidly.

26. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-26 Cognitive and Social Perspectives On Learning Latent learning occurs when learning has taken place but is not demonstrated until a later time.

27. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall5-27 Cognitive and Social Perspectives On Learning Observational learning takes place when we observe and identify with the behaviors of others. Advertisements and television commercials appeal to this process. Televised violence may result in observational learning and lead to an increase in violent behaviors.