Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Chapter 32 Societies at Crossroads 1

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Ottoman Empire in Decline O Ottoman empire reaches peak of military expansion in late 17 th century O Defeated by Austrians, Russians, largely due to European advances in technology and strategy O Elite Janissary corps involved in palace intrigue O Semi-independent local warlords use mercenaries, slave armies to support Sultan in return for imperial favor O Massive corruption, misuse of tax revenues 2

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Territorial Losses O Russia takes territories in Caucasus, central Asia O Nationalist uprisings drive Ottomans out of Balkans O Napoleon’s unsuccessful attack on Egypt spurs local revolt against Ottomans under Muhammad Ali (r ) O Nominally subordinate to Sultan, but threatened capture of Istanbul O British support Ottomans only to avoid possible Russian expansion 3

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Territorial losses of the Ottoman Empire, 1800 –

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Ottoman Economy O Imports of cheap manufactured goods place stress on local artisans, urban riots result O Export-dependent Ottoman economy increasingly relies on foreign loans O By 1882 Ottomans unable to pay even interest on loans, forced to accept foreign administration of debts O Capitulations: agreements that exempted Europeans from Ottoman law O Extraterritoriality gives tax-free status to foreign banks, businesses 6

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Early Reforms O Attempts to reform taxation, increase agricultural output, and reduce corruption O Sultan Selim III (r ) remodeled army on European lines O Janissaries revolt, kill new troops, imprison Sultan O Sultan Mahmud II (r ) attempts same, has Janissaries massacred O Also reforms schools, taxation, builds telegraph, postal service 7 Mahmud II

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Tanzimat (“Reorganization”) Era, O Pace of reform accelerated O Drafted new law codes O Undermined power of traditional religious elite O Fierce opposition from religious conservatives, bureaucracy O Also opposition from radical Young Ottomans, who wanted constitutional government 8 Great Mustapha Rashid Pasha Principal architect of the Tanzimât

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Young Turk Era O 1876 radical dissident elements stage a coup, install Abdül Hamid II as Sultan (r ) O Constitution, representative government adopted, but suspended within the year, Many liberals exiled, executed O Principal organization; Ottoman Society for Union and Progress: The Young Turk Party O Founded by Ottomans in exile in Paris O Called for rapid, secular reforms O Forced Abdül Hamid II to restore parliament, then dethroned him in favor of Mehmed V Rashid (r ) 9

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The First Congress of the Ottoman Opposition (1902) in Paris 10

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Young Turk Rule O Attempted to establish Turkish hegemony over far-flung empire O Turkish made official language, despite large numbers of Arabic and Slavic language speakers O Yet could not contain forces of decline 11

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. During the 1800’s, Russia changed very little because… O Russia had a rigid feudal social structure. O The Crimean War O Russification – The attempt by the cars to make the vast array of ethnic minorities in Russia to think, act and behave as Russians.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Say it with me, Russification! Czar Nicholas I

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Russian Empire,

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Crimean War, O Russian expansion into Caucasus in larger attempt to establish control over weakening Ottoman empire O Threatens to upset balance of power, Europeans become involved O Russia driven back from Crimea in humiliating defeat O Demonstration of Russian weakness in the face of western technology, strategy 15

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Crimea, on the Black Sea

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Battle of Sinope, the First Great Battle of the Crimean War

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Photo of an army camp at Balaklava in the Crimean War, 1855.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Florence Nightingale, creator of the modern profession of nursing

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Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. An Photograph Entitled “Souvenirs de Crimee” from It is for sale at $17,500.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Reform: Emancipation of the Serfs O Serfdom source of rural instability and peasant revolt O Tsar Alexander II emancipates serfs in 1861, without alleviating poverty, land hunger O Forced to pay for lands they had farmed for generations O Limited attempts to reform administration, small-scale representative government O Network of elected district assemblies called zemstvos 22

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until the serfs begin to liberate themselves from below.” Czar Alexander II

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Industrialization in Russia O Count Sergei Witte, minister of finance O Massive railroad construction O Trans-Siberian railroad O But massive industrial discontent O Peasants uprooted from rural lifestyle to work for low wages, long hours 24

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Repression O Intelligentsia class spreads radical ideas for social change O Socialists, anarchists O Terror tactics, assassinations O Attempt to connect with the mistrustful peasantry in 1870s, denounced and sent into Siberian exile O Tsarist authorities turn to censorship, secret police O Nationalist sentiment seething in Baltics, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, and Central Asia 25

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Radicalization O 1881 radical People’s Will movement assassinates Tsar Alexander II O Prompted widespread pogrom attacks on Jews O Increased repression O Nicholas II (r ) enters into war with Japan ( ) O Humiliating defeat exposes government weaknesses O Social discontent boils over in Revolution of 1905 O Strikes force government to make concessions 26

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Russian Empire in Decline O Russia a massive, multi-cultural empire O Only approximately half speak Russian, observe Russian Orthodox Christianity O Romanov Tsars rule autocratic empire O Powerful class of nobles exempt from taxation, military duty O Exploitative serfdom 27 Nicholas II, the last Emperor of Russia.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Chinese Restrictions on British Trade O Since 1759, European commercial presence limited to port of Guangzhou O Foreign merchants forced to deal solely with licensed Chinese firms called cohongs, currency of trade: silver bullion O British East India Company heavily involved in opium trade O Opium grown in India, sold in China for silver, silver used to buy other Chinese products 28

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Opium Wars

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Opium Trade O Illegal, but poor enforcement O Increasing trade and social ills evident by late 1830s O Chinese move to enforce ban O British agents engage in military retaliation: the Opium War ( ) O British naval forces easily defeats Chinese 30

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Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Painting of a sea battle during the First Opium War

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Partial view of the ruins of the Upper North Taku Fort, China. This photograph was taken by Felice Beato on the morning of 21 August 1860, shortly after the fort was attacked and captured by Anglo-French forces in one of the key battles of the Second Opium War.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Unequal Treaties O China forced into a series of disadvantageous treaties O Hong Kong ceded to British in Treaty of Nanjing (1842), ports opened to British traders O Extraterritorial status to British subject O Later, other countries conclude similar treaties 34

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. A shocked mandarin in Manchu robe in the back, with Queen Victoria (Great Britain), Wilhelm II (Germany), Nicholas II (Russia), Marianne (France), and an Emperor Meiji (Japan) discussing how to cut up a plate with Chine ("China" in French) written on it.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. East Asia in the nineteenth century 36

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Taiping Rebellion ( ) O Large-scale rebellions in later nineteenth century reflect poverty, discontent of Chinese peasantry O Population rises 50% between , but land under cultivation remains static O Nian Rebellion ( ), Muslim Rebellion ( ), Tungan Rebellion ( ) O Taiping Rebellion led by Hong Xiuquan, schoolteacher, called for destruction of Qing dynasty 37

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Taiping Platform O Abolition of private property O Creation of communal wealth O Prohibition of footbinding, concubines O Free public education, simplification of written Chinese, mass literacy O Prohibition of sexual relations among followers (including married couples) O Yet leaders maintained harems 38

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Taiping Defeat O Nanjing captured in 1858, made into capital O Attack on Beijing with force of 1 million, but turned back O Imperial army unable to contain Taipings, so regional armies created with Manchu soldiers and outfitted with European weaponry O Hong commits suicide in 1864, Nanjing recaptured O 100,000 Taipings massacred 39

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Self-Strengthening Movement ( ) O High point in 1860s-1870s O Slogan “Chinese learning at the base, Western learning for use” O Blend of Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial technology O Shipyards, railroads, academies O Change to Chinese economy and society superficial O Empress Dowager Cixi ( ) diverted funds for her own aesthetic purposes 40

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Spheres of Influence O Qing dynasty loses influence in south-east Asia, losing tributary states to Europeans and Japanese O Vietnam: France, 1886 O Burma: Great Britain, 1885 O Korea, Taiwan, Liaodong Peninsula: Japan, 1895 O China itself divided into spheres of influence,

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Hundred Days Reforms (1898) O Kang Youwei ( ) and Liang Qichao ( ) O Interpreted Confucianism to allow for radical changes to system O Pro-industrialization O Emperor Guangxu attempts to implement reforms O Empress Dowager Cixi nullifies reforms, imprisons emperor 42

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Boxer Rebellion O Cixi supports Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (“Boxers”), anti-foreign militia units O 1899 fight to rid China of “foreign devils” O Misled to believe European weapons would not harm them, 140,000 Boxers besiege European embassies in 1900 O Crushed by coalition of European forces O China forced to accept stationing of foreign troops 43

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Boxer Rebellion Boxer Soldiers, 1901 O They attacked foreigners who were building railroads as well as Christians who were held responsible for the foreign domination of China. O Tens of thousands of Chinese Christians, Catholic and Protestant alike, were killed.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. A German political cartoon about the Boxer rebellion

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. US Military soldier in his quarters during the Boxer rebellion. The 8 Nation Alliance helped to put down the rebellion: America, Russia, Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy and Japan.

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Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Death of the Dowager Empress O Emperor dies a mysterious, sudden death O Cixi dies one day later, November 1908 O 2-year old Puyi placed on the throne O Revolution in 1911 O Puyi abdicates,

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Transformation of Japan O Japanese society in turmoil in early 19 th century O Poor agricultural output, famines, high taxes O Daimyo, samurai classes decline, peasants starve O Tokugawa government attempts reforms, O Cancelled daimyo, samurai debts O Abolished merchant guilds O Compelled peasants to return to cultivating rice O Reforms ineffective 49

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Foreign Pressure O Europeans, Americans attempting to establish relations O U.S. in particular look for Pacific ports for whalers, merchants O Japan only allowed Dutch presence in Nagasaki O 1853 Matthew Perry sails gunship up to Edo (Tokyo), forces Japanese to open port O Sparks conservative Japanese reaction against Shogun, rally around Emperor in Kyoto 50

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Japan Changes Direction During the Meiji Era: Commodore Matthew Perry

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Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display – Commodore Matthew Perry “Opens Up” Japan to Western Trade!

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. What Did the U. S. Want??  Coaling stations.  More trading partners.  A haven for ship-wrecked sailors.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Treaty of Kanagawa

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Effects of the Treaty of Kanagawa O Many Japanese felt that the shogun had shown weakness in front of the foreigners by agreeing to the treaty. O Some Japanese felt the need to modernize Japan in order to compete with the Western powers. O A rebellion overthrew the shogun, restoring the emperor to power.

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Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Meiji Revolt  A powerful group of samurai overthrow the Shogun.  Sakamoto Ryoma, the hero.  He helped Japan emerge from feudalism into a unified modern state.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Samurai of the Chosyu clan, during the Meiji Restoration

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Shogunate Is Overthrown!  The last Shogun.  Tokugawa Yoshinobu.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Meiji Restoration (1868) O Brief civil war between imperial and Tokugawa forces O 1868 Emperor Mutusuhito (Meiji, ) takes power O Goals of prosperity and strength: “rich country, strong army” O Resolved to learn western technology 61

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Newspaper Cartoon, 1870s? Enlightened Half-Enlightened Un-Enlightened

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Japanese Became Obsessed with Western Styles Civilization and Enlightenment!

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Rulers Set the Tone with Western Dress Emperor Meiji Empress Haruko ( )

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Changing Women’s Fashions 1900 Styles The First “Miss Japan” (1908)

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Meiji Reforms O Travelers Fukuzawa Yukichi ( ) and Ito Hirobumi ( ) travel to U.S., Europe O Argue for adoption of western legal proceedings, technology O Meiji government removes privileges for daimyo, samurai O Conscript army replaces samurai mercenaries O Samurai rebellion crushed by national army O Tax reform: payment in cash, not kind 66

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Meiji Reforms Abolition of the feudal system Land Redistribution Human Rights & Religious Freedom Build a Modern Navy (British) Westernize the School System (Fr. & Ger.) Modernize the Army (Prussian) Emperor Worship Intensified Written Constitution (Germans) Modern Banking System

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Constitutional Government O 1889 constitution promulgated O Conservative: only 5 % of male population allowed to vote in 1890 election O Economic reforms to promote rapid industrialization O Dramatic improvement in literacy rates O Government holdings sold to private investors: zaibatsu, financial cliques develop 68

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The National Diet Building, Tokyo Joint session of the Diet of Japan

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. A Constitutional Government Copied from the Germans Satsuma & Choshu Families The Emperor of Japan The Diet (Legislative Body) House of Representatives House of Peers 1889 Constitution of Japan