1. Societies at Crossroads
Chapter 31
Societies at Crossroads
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Introduction
Common problems
Military weakness, vulnerability to foreign threats
Internal weakness due to economic problems, financial difficulties, and corruption
Reform efforts
Attempts at political and educational reforms and at industrialization
Different results of reforms
Ottoman empire, Russia, and China unsuccessful; societies on the verge of collapse
Reform in Japan was more thorough; Japan emerged as an industrial power
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3. The Ottoman Empire in Decline
Ottoman empire reaches peak of military expansion in late seventeenth century
Ottoman forces behind European armies in strategy, tactics, weaponry, training
Janissary corps politically corrupt, undisciplined
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Territorial Losses
Russia takes territories in Caucasus, central Asia
Nationalist uprisings drive Ottomans out of Balkans
British support Ottomans only to avoid possible Russian expansion
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Ottoman Economy
Less trade through empire as Europeans shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin
Exported raw materials, imported European manufactured goods
Foreigners began to administer the debts of the Ottoman state by 1882
The "capitulations": European domination of Ottoman economy
Extraterritoriality: Europeans exempt from Ottoman law within the empire
Could operate tax-free; deprived empire of desperately needed income
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Early Reforms
Attempt to reform military led to violent Janissary revolt ( )
Reformer Mahmud II ( ) became sultan after revolt
When Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed; cleared the way for reforms
He built an European-style army, academies, schools, roads, and telegraph
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7. Tanzimat (“Reorganization”) Era, 1839-1876
Broad legal reforms, modeled after Napoleon's civic code
State reform of education (1846), free and compulsory primary education (1869)
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The Young Turk Era
Opposition to Tanzimat reforms
Young Ottomans wanted more reform: freedom, autonomy, decentralization
The Young Turks, after 1889, an active body of opposition
Called for universal suffrage, equality, freedom, secularization, women's rights
The empire survived only because of distrust among European powers
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The Crimean War,
Nineteenth-century Russia expanded from Manchuria, across Asia to Baltic Sea
Sought access to Mediterranean Sea, moved on Balkans controlled by Ottomans
European coalition supported Ottomans against Russia in Crimea
Crushing defeat forced tsars to take radical steps to modernize army, industry
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10. Territorial Losses of the Ottoman Empire, 1800-1923
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11. Industrialization in Russia
The Witte system: developed by Sergei Witte, minister of finance,
Railway construction stimulated other industries; trans-Siberian railway
Remodeled the state bank, protected infant industries, secured foreign loans
Top-down industrialization effective; steel, coal, and oil industries grew
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Repression
Peasants landless, no political power, frustrated by lack of meaningful reform
Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870s
Intelligentsia advocated socialism and anarchism, recruited in countryside
Repression by tsarist authorities: secret police, censorship
Russification: sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated
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The Russian Empire,
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Revolution
Russo-Japanese War, : Russian expansion to east leads to conflict with Japan
Revolution of 1905: triggered by costly Russian defeat by Japan
Bloody Sunday massacre: unarmed workers shot down by government troops
Peasants seized landlords' property; workers formed soviets
Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the Duma; did not end conflict
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17. Chinese Restrictions on British Trade
Opium trade a serious threat to Qing dynasty by nineteenth century
Chinese restricted foreign merchants to one port city
China had much to offer, but little demand for European products
East India Company cultivated opium to exchange for Chinese goods
Opium grown in India, sold in China for silver, silver used to buy other Chinese products
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Opium Factory
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The Opium War
China directed to stop opium trade
British refused; China confiscated and destroyed twenty thousand chests of opium
British retaliated, easily crushed Chinese forces, destroyed Grand Canal
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Unequal Treaties
Treaty of Nanjing, 1842: Britain gained right to opium trade, most-favored-nation status, Hong Kong, open trade ports, exemptions from Chinese laws
Similar unequal treaties made to other western countries and Japan
By 1900, China lost control of economy, ninety ports to foreign powers
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25. East Asia in the Nineteenth Century
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26. The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)
Population grew by 50 percent; land and food more slowly; poverty strained resources
Purpose: to drive Europeans out of China
The Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by Hong Xiuquan
Called for end of Qing dynasty; resented Manchu rule
Radical social change: no private property, footbinding, concubinage
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Taiping defeat by combined Qing and foreign troops
Gentry sided with government; regional armies had European weapons
Taipings defeated in 1864; the war claimed twenty to thirty million lives
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Spheres of Influence
Spheres of influence eroded Chinese power
Foreign powers seized Chinese tribute states of Vietnam, Burma, Korea, Taiwan
1898, they carved China into spheres of economic influence, each a different province
The Boxer rebellion (the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists),
Local militia attacked foreigners, Chinese Christians
Crushed by European and Japanese troops
Collapse of Qing dynasty in 1912
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The Boxer Rebellion
The Boxer rebellion (the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists),
1899 fight to rid China of “foreign devils”
Misled to believe European weapons would not harm them
Local militia attacked foreigners, Chinese Christians
Crushed by European and Japanese troops
Collapse of Qing dynasty in 1912
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Boxers
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35. Transformation of Japan
Tokugawa government attempts reforms,
Cancelled daimyo, samurai debts
Abolished merchant guilds
Compelled peasants to return to cultivating rice
Reforms ineffective
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Foreign Pressure
Europeans, Americans attempting to establish relations
U.S. in particular look for Pacific ports for whalers, merchants
Japan only allowed Dutch presence in Nagasaki
1853 Matthew Perry sails gunship up to Edo (Tokyo), forces Japanese to open port
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38. The Meiji Restoration (1868)
Brief civil war between imperial and Tokugawa forces
1868, Emperor Mutsuhito (Meiji, ) takes power
Goals of prosperity and strength: “rich country, strong army”
Resolved to learn western technology
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Meiji Reforms
Meiji government welcomed foreign expertise
Studied western constitutions and education
Built Japanese constitutional government
Abolition of the feudal order essential to new government
Daimyo and samurai lost status and privileges
Districts reorganized to break up old feudal domains
New conscript army ended power of samurai; rebelled in 1877 but lost
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41. Constitutional Government
Revamping tax system
Assessed taxes on potential productivity of arable land
Constitutional government, the emperor's "gift" to the people in 1889
Emperor remained supreme, limited the rights of the people
Less than 5 percent of adult males could vote
Legislature, the Diet, was an opportunity for debate and dissent
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Infrastructure
Transportation: railroads, telegraph, steamships
Education: universal primary and secondary; competitive universities
Industry: privately owned, government controlled arms industry
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Cost
Land tax cost peasants 40 percent to 50 percent of crop yield
Peasant uprisings crushed; little done to alleviate suffering
Labor movement also crushed; Meiji law treated unions and strikes as criminal
Japan became an industrial power in a single generation
Defeated China in 1895 and Russia in 1904
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