© Allyn & Bacon Prenatal Development And Birth Social and Personality Development in Early Childhood This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Psychoanalytic Perspectives –Freud Anal Stage –Toilet training battles. Phallic Stage –Oedipus or Electra Complex »Identification with the same sex parent »Healthy development requires both parents. Theories of Social and Personality Development

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Psychoanalytic Perspectives –Erikson Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt –Centered around toddler’s new mobility Initiative versus Guilt –Ushered in by new cognitive skills –Developing conscience dictates boundaries Theories of Social and Personality Development

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Social-Cognitive Perspectives –Social and emotional changes facilitated by growth in cognitive abilities. –Person Perception Ability to classify others –Make judgments about children similar to adults –Use traits to describe people or patterns of behavior –Preschooler perceptions may vary from day to day. Theories of Social and Personality Development

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Social-Cognitive Perspectives –Understanding Rule Categories Social conventions –Rules that serve to regulate behavior Moral rules –Regulations based on individual or society’s sense of right and wrong Preschoolers respond differently to social rules and moral rules between 2 and 3. Understanding develops on the basis of increased cognitive capabilities and adult emphasis of moral transgressions. Theories of Social and Personality Development

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Social-Cognitive Perspectives –Understanding Others’ Intentions Recent research suggests that children do understand intentions to some degree. –Understand that punishment is for intentional acts –Can make judgments about actors’ intentions when faced with abstract problems and with punishment Theories of Social and Personality Development

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Attachment –Preschoolers who are securely attached exhibit fewer behavior problems. –Insecurely attached children display more anger and aggression at daycare and preschool. –By age 4, children form goal-corrected partnerships. The relationships continues to exist even when the partners are apart. Family Relationships and Structure

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Diana Baumrind Focused on 4 dimensions –Warmth or nurturance –Clarity and consistency of rules –Maturity of demands –Communications between child and parent Three parenting styles –Authoritarian –Permissive –Authoritative Parenting Styles

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Authoritarian –High levels of demand and control –Low levels of warmth and communication. –Consequences Children do well in school Have lower self-esteem Typically less skilled with peers Some appear subdued Others show high aggressiveness Traits last well into high school Parenting Styles

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Permissive –High in warmth and communication –Low in demand and control –Consequences Do slightly worse in school during adolescence Likely to be more aggressive Somewhat more immature Less likely to take responsibility Less independent Parenting Styles

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Authoritative –High in warmth and communication –High in demand and control –Consequences Most consistently positive outcomes Children show higher self-esteem More independent More likely to comply with parental requests Show more altruistic behaviors Self-confident and achievement oriented Get better grades in school Parenting Styles

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Figure 8.2

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Authoritative Parents –More likely to be involved in child’s school –Inductive discipline A strategy in which parents explain to the child why a punished behavior is wrong Helps children in preschool to gain control of their behavior and gain perspective of other’s feelings Parenting Styles

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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Maccoby and Martin add the Uninvolved Type –Low in levels of demand and control –Low in levels of warmth and communication –Consequences Most consistently negative outcomes Disturbances in social relationships More impulsive and antisocial in adolescence Less competent with peers Much less achievement-oriented in school Parenting Styles

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Authoritative pattern More common in white families Least common among Asian Americans More common among middle class Usually more common among intact families Positive outcomes seen in all ethnic groups Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Authoritarian pattern –Asian Americans Associated with high levels of school achievement in Asian American children Helps children to succeed economically Helps to enable children to maintain ethnic identity Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Authoritarian pattern –African Americans Aware of social forces such as racism that impede social success Adopt authoritarian pattern to enhance children’s potential for success High correlation between authoritarian pattern and self- control among African American children More likely to be poor Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles

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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 What kind of parenting style was used to raise you? What effects did it have on your development? What style will you use as a parent? What can single parents do to improve the developmental progress of their children? Questions to Ponder

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Family Structure –Diversity in Two-Parent and Single-Parent Families Only 50% of children in the U.S. live with both biological parents 20% to 30% of two-parent families are created when a divorced or never-married single parent marries another person. Many children from two-parent families have experienced single- parenting. Since the 1990’s, a higher numbers of single mothers are middle class professionals. Teenage mothers are likely to live with parents. Family Relationships and Structure

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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Single parent families more common among African Americans and Native Americans. –These groups exhibit a higher rate of births to single mothers than seen in other groups. 75% of births are to mothers over age 20. –Single mothers are less likely to marry. –A lack of economic opportunities for men hinders their taking on of family responsibilities. –Grandparents and other relatives traditionally help support single mothers. Family Structure and Ethnicity

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Psychological research –Supports the suggestion that the optimal family structure is two biological parents –Single parenting when poverty is an issue is correlated with negative effects on development –Children of single parents Twice as likely to drop out of high school Twice as likely to have a child by 20 Less likely to have a steady job Preschoolers are less cognitively and socially advanced Family Structure Effects

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Custodial Grandparents –Stresses of parenting and the physical effects of aging cause more anxiety and depression in grandparents Gay and Lesbian Parenting –Concerns about children’s sex-role identity and orientation are not supported by research. –Their children do not differ from heterosexuals on measures of cognitive and social development. Other Types of Family Structures

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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Impacts of divorce on children –Typically exhibit declines in school performance –Show more aggressive, defiant, or depressed behaviors –More likely to engage in criminal behavior in adolescence –Children in step-parent families have higher rates of delinquency, more behavior problems, and lower grades. Divorce

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Impacts of divorce on children –Higher risk of mental problems in adulthood –Lack financial and emotional support needed for success in college –Struggle with fears of intimacy in relationships –More likely to divorce themselves –Effects are more severe for boys Divorce

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Play –Solitary play All ages of children –Parallel play 14 – 18 months –Cooperative play 3 – 4 years old Peer Relationships

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Play is associated with the development of social skills. –Group entry Poor group entry skills lead to aggressive behaviors. Children with poor group entry skills are often rejected by peers. Social skills training helps to gain acceptance for rejected peers. Peer Relationships

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Initial aggression in 2 – 3-year-olds –Hitting and throwing things –Instrumental aggression – intended to obtain something a child wants Older children –Hostile aggression – used to hurt another or to gain an advantage –With good verbal skills comes verbal aggression. –Physical aggression declines as dominance hierarchies emerge. Aggression

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Aggression-frustration hypothesis –Declines with communication skills Reinforcement and modeling of aggression Trait aggression –Personality style that develops as a way of life May have genetic basis Seen in abusive families Lack of affection in families Aggressive children lag behind in understanding other children’s intentions. Development of aggression

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Development of Prosocial Behavior –Evident at 2 – 3 years of age –Some behaviors increase with age –Children who show altruistic behaviors are popular with peers Parental Influences –Loving and warm family climate –Explain consequences clearly to children –Provide prosocial attributions – positive statements about the underlying cause for helpful behavior Prosocial Behavior and Friendships

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Friendships –Emerges by age 3 –By age 4, children spend 30% of time with one other child –Become more stable with time –Early friendships related to social competence Prosocial Behavior and Friendships

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Self-Concept –The Categorical Self Focus is on visible characteristics –The Emotional Self Acquisition of emotional self-regulation –Associated with peer popularity –Lack of control associated with aggression –Associated with the emergence of empathy –The Social Self Child sees itself as a player in social games –Learns a variety of social scripts –Social scripts provide appropriate behaviors for situations Personality and Self-Concept

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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Psychoanalytic Explanations –Identification with the same sex parent Social-Cognitive Explanations –Linked to gender-related behavior Becomes motivated to exhibit same-sex behaviors –Parents shape sex role behaviors and attitudes Gender Schema Theory –Learn gender scripts –Learn likes and dislikes of own gender –Develops a complex view of other gender Gender Role Development

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Gender identity –Child’s ability to label his or her own sex correctly Gender stability –Understanding that you stay the same gender throughout life True gender constancy –Recognition that someone stays the same gender even though appearances may change with clothing Gender Constancy

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Cross-cultural gender stereotypes –Women are associated with gentleness, weakness, appreciativeness, and soft-heartedness. –Men are associated with aggression, strength, cruelty, and coarseness. –Children learn these stereotypes by 3 or 4. Can assign stereotypical behaviors to jobs, toys, and activities –By age 5, children begin to associate personality traits with gender. Sex-Role Knowledge

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Develops earlier than ideas about sex roles 18 – 24 months – children show preferences for sex- stereotyped toys Age 3 – children show preferences for same-sex friends Sex-typed behaviors are learned differently. –Girls use an enabling style. Supporting a friend, expressing agreement, making suggestions –Boys use a constricting or restrictive style. Derails inappropriate interactions, bringing them to an end Sex-Typed Behavior

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© Allyn & Bacon Prenatal Development And Birth End Show This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.