Growth of a money economy allowed monarchs to hire soldiers. Rise of Nation States Feudal monarchs increased their power by gaining the support of townspeople. Growth of a money economy allowed monarchs to hire soldiers.

England

Battle of Hastings - 1066 Duke William of Normandy gains the English throne. He maintains firm control over his vassals. Recorded a census in the Domesday Book to make tax collecting more efficient.

Unified Legal System - 1154 Henry II expands legal customs to form English Common Law, which applied to all citizens. Traveling justices enforced laws, the exchequer (royal treasury) collected fees, traditions of grand jury and trial by jury were established.

Magna Carta - 1215 Barons forced King John to sign the “Great Charter,” which was later used to limit the power of the monarchy. Granted rights to the nobility, which were later extended to all citizens. Forced the monarch to abide by the law. Required the monarch to consult with the Great Council of lords and clergy before raising taxes. In the 1200s, meetings of the Great Council began to include representatives from the towns and lesser knights.

These meetings became known as Parliament. Two groups eventually formed. House of Lords: nobles and high clergy (bishops) House of Commons: lesser knights and middle class citizens (townspeople) A limited monarchy developed as Parliament increased its financial and legislative powers.

France

Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, elected king by feudal lords in 987. Established the Capetian dynasty that lasted 300 years. Increased royal lands through diplomacy, marriage, and war. Established efficient bureaucracy. Districts were administered by educated clergy, lesser knights, and townspeople.

1302 - Estates General formed to represent the clergy, the nobility, and the townspeople (bourgeoisie). It never became as powerful as the Parliament.

Holy Roman Empire

Otto I, Duke of Saxony, elected king of the Germanic states in 936. He centralized power over the German and Italian states and formed close ties with the Church. Pope John XII crowned Otto “Emperor of the Romans” in 962. Title claimed by Otto’s successors.

According to the philosopher Voltaire, “Not holy, Roman, nor an empire According to the philosopher Voltaire, “Not holy, Roman, nor an empire.” The emperors never had as much control as the nobility.

The power struggle between emperors and popes was an ongoing affair throughout the Middle Ages. The practice of lay investiture, wherein the emperor gave a new bishop the symbols of his office (a ring and a staff), became a big issue in the 1000s. In 1122, at the Concordat at Worms, a compromise was reached where church officials elected bishops and abbots and invested them with spiritual authority and the emperor granted them lands and secular powers.

Spain

Reconquista Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile finally drove out the Muslims in 1492. Crusade to bring political and religious unity followed. Religious toleration ended. Muslims and Jews who refused to convert to Christianity were tried by the Inquisition and often killed. Many skilled and educated people emigrated.