Processes in Memory Three step process… Encoding: processing information into the memory Storage: retaining memories over time Retrieval: getting information out of memory

Storage Memories can be stored for differing amounts of time depending on how they are encoded The Atkinson-Shiffrin theory (three-stage model) of storage includes 3 separate memory store 1. sensory memory - up to several seconds 2. short-term memory - up to 30 seconds 3. long-term memory - up to a lifetime

The Three-Stage Model (attention) (encoding)

Sensory Memory Holds information from ALL sensory input Large Capacity & Limited Duration Sensory memory enters into short-term memory through the process of attention The longer we delay paying attention to sensory information, the more we forget Iconic memory studied by George Sperling (1960) Iconic < 0.5 sec. Echoic 3-4 sec. Haptic 1-2 sec.

Short-Term Memory (STM) AKA Working Memory What we pay attention to in sensory memory moves into STM Limited Capacity & Limited Duration Short-term memory enters into long-term memory through encoding (rehearsal)

Limited Capacity of STM Studied by George Miller (1956) “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two” 7±2

Increasing Capacity of STM Chunking: grouping items together into familiar or easily manageable units We remember numbers better than letters Clustering: organizing information into categories

Limited Duration of STM Studied by John Brown (1958)/Margaret Peterson & Lloyd Peterson (1959) Made participants work on a counting task immediately after hearing meaningless three-consonant syllables read to them Duration of short-term memory is less than 30 seconds WITHOUT REHEARSAL

Working Memory Model Studied by Baddeley & Hitch Argues that the Atkinson-Shiffrin model simplifies STM; STM is more complex

Long Term-Memory (LTM) What we rehearse in STM gets encoded into LTM Unlimited Capacity & possibly Unlimited Duration Automatically processed information bypasses sensory memory & STM stores Contains multiple types of memories: Explicit Memory: facts and experiences; learned consciously AKA Declarative Memory Types: Semantic & Episodic Memories Implicit Memory: skills & conditioning; learned unconsciously AKA Non-declarative Memory Types: Procedural & Conditioned Memories

Types of Long Term-Memory

Flashbulb Memory Highly emotional memories of significant events Events can be positive or negative; usually unique Recall is more accurate and VIVID Produce a clear, strong, and persistent memory Does not mean that events are recollected correctly May include wrong information Where were you when: September 11th terrorist attacks took place?

How Memory is Organized Schemas: A pre-existing mental framework that helps people to organize and interpret information Prior encounters with the environment influence the way that we encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information Scripts: A schema for an event Very specific schema for a particular order of expected events in a particular context

Long-term Potentiation How a memory is physically created in the brain At the neural level (neuron) Research has shown that new dendrites form and create connections to other neurons when new information comes into the brain As these neurons learn to fire together, they get better at it and the connection between them strengthens Making the memory stronger This creates an “express lane” for information

Memory Stores Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Encoding Structural Phonemic Semantic Capacity (space) Very Large 7±2 Chunks (limited) Unlimited Duration (time) Up to several seconds Up to 30 seconds Up to a lifetime