Henry II ‘Curtmantle’ King of England Duke of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Tourraine, Gascony and Aquitaine, Count of Poitou Duke of Britanny

The Angevin Empire in 1170

The Angevin Empire was the largest political entity in western Europe since the Carolingians. It was never referred to as such by contemporaries however, being a loose confederation of territories with no common system of law or taxation. There was not even a capital, the centre of government being wherever the king and his court happened to be. There was however a common central government, the Chancery under the control of the Chancellor and his clerks who moved about with the court. In such a loose structure, an energetic and resourceful king was essential as his own actions, diplomacy and choice of servants would determine the survival of the empire. Henry II was such a man, as was his son Richard III. His youngest son John was not however, and the dependency of the empire on the personal qualities of its king is shown by its rapid disintegration under the latter’s rule. Although it was much smaller than its contented dominions, England had to be the political priority of the empire’s rulers. Not only was its tax base and military resources better organised than elsewhere, but alone of the Angevin realms it was a monarchy, its crown giving the rulers parity with the Kings of France whom, although infinitely poorer, were the nominal suzerain. Characteristics of The Angevin Empire

Character of Henry II His chief characteristic was energy, his omnipresence in areas of crisis explains how he consolidated his hold on the empire, according to the French King, ‘Now in Ireland, now in England, now in Normandy, he must fly rather than travel by horse or ship!’ He was also a talented statesman, effective in war but not bellicose and a patron of the arts. He also had a strong sense of justice and was determined to restore the rule of law to war-ravaged England. His weakness was his temper – when contradicted he could relapse into ungovernable rage hence the family nickname ‘the Devil’s Brood’. His other problem was his family – his later years would be dominated by the pretensions of his sons, all of whom save John rebelled against him seeking independent authority at one time or another whilst from 1166 Henry’s affair with his lover Rosamund Clifford destroyed his marriage to Eleanor who joined his sons in plotting against him, indeed she was imprisoned for 16 years for treason.

Henry’s early reign Henry inherited the English throne peacefully in 1154, having ruled extensive French lands for years he was already an experienced ruler. His first action was to complete the securing of England from renewed anarchy through the expulsion of mercenaries, the destruction of remaining adulterine castles and the restoration of all Crown lands. This process was complete within a year of his accession. His choice of ministers reflected his desire for unity – Angevins Nigel Bishop of Ely and Thomas Becket worked with ex-Blessivins Robert Earl of Leicester and Richard de Lucy. They were able ministers chosen on merit as well as loyalty and made the governing of the Angevin empire possible. Henry avoided unnecessary confrontation from the beginning – he regained control of the Norman province of Vexin off the French king Louis VII via the marriage of his daughter Margaret to the Dauphin Henri rather than conquer it. Louis VII was a simple man and repeatedly politically outmanoeuvred by Henry and his chief negotiator Becket – a combination of a judicious marriage of the heir of Brittany Constance to Henry ‘s son Geoffrey gained him the Duchy in 1169 completing his control of western France. His attempt to extend his domain over the Duchy of Toulouse in 1159 was less successful, his attempt to take the city of Toulouse was a costly failure and the heavy taxes and ‘gifts; he demanded from secular and spiritual tenants in chief alike bred widespread resentment. Thus ended the ‘honeymoon’ period of his early reign.

Apogee Henry’s realm was never secure, there was almost constant revolt in both Brittany and Aquitaine where his overlordship was never fully accepted by the nobility. However the heart of Henry’s realm was largely obedient during this period and his alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa plus schisms within the papacy gave him domination of western European politics. England blossomed within the Angevin empire, some 49 new towns being created. In the midst of this period he made the fateful decision to appoint Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1162.

Relations with Becket Becket underwent a character transformation as Archbishop becoming excessively self-righteous and determined to assert the independence of the Church. This including reclaiming tax revenues from Canterbury and challenging the power of royal courts over clergy, and this at a time when Henry regarded the universal application of law as essential to the restoration of order in England. Henry and the nobility reaffirmed the legal supremacy of King over Church in the Constitution of Clarendon of Becket initially agreed but latterly retracted his support. Openly defying Henry’s will at the Council of Northampton some months later he refused to be bound by royal authority and fled to the papal court. For six years Becket remained exiled and Henry used Roger Du Pont L’Eveque Archbishop of York as his senior clergyman; including crowning his eldest son Henry the Younger as ‘joint king’ in 1170 to promote a peaceful succession. This challenge to the see of Canterbury stung Becket into returning to England. He and Henry apparently peacefully reconciled by Becket immediately excommunicated L’Eveuqe and the other bishops present at the coronation. It was at this news that Henry reportedly uttered the famous phrase ‘Who will rid me of this turbulent priest?’

Aftermath of the Becket affair Although Henry did not order the murder of Becket, he was guilty in the eyes of Christendom and this gave a pretext for invasions of his lands from both France and Scotland. It was for this reason rather than fear of papal excommunication; Alexander III needed Henry’s support in his struggle against the antipope; that caused Henry’s famous act of contrition at Canterbury in Afterwards both invasions were beaten. The only lasting result of the affair was the entrenchment of ‘benefit of clergy’ in English law where it would remain until the 1820s. Far more serious was the accession of Phillip II ‘Augustus’ in 1180 to the French throne, a truly dynamic ruler who would turn the Plantagenets against themselves.

The Leicester War Henry had intended to divide his empire – Henry inheriting England, Anjou and Normandy, Richard Aquitaine, Geoffrey Brittany and John nothing – hence ‘Lackland’. In 1173 a rebellion backed by Louis VII and Eleanor (captured before it began) was launched headed by Henry and Richard. Their supporters rose on both sides of the Channel but they lacked coordination and Henry II was able to deal with them individually. Only at the end of the year did a coordinated assault emerge when Robert ‘Whitehands’, Earl of Leicester and support of Henry the young king invaded England at the same time as William the Lion of Scotland. Both were defeated by the Constable of England, William Bohun at the Battles of Berwick and Fornham respectively whilst Henry II dealt with rebellion in France. With the capture of Whitehands and the defeat of Louis, Henry II was able reach a conciliation with his sons at the treaty of Montlouis in Sept 1174, largely a return to the status quo apart form providing lands for John in Ireland.

Aquitaine and the death of Henry the Young King A restless peace settled over western Europe during this period with Louis VII effectively opting out of further war. Richard’s success in dealing with the rebellious nobility of Aquitaine was the dominant feature of the period, but in 1183 Henry and Geoffrey joined the rebels fearing their brother’s rising power. Shortly afterwards Henry died of dysentery. Henry II now proposed shifting Richard to Henry’s inheritance and replacing him as Duke of Aquitaine with John. Richard refused and successfully defied his father.

Henry II’s last days In 1187 Richard took the crusading vow, however he refused to depart until his father had confirmed his succession to the Angevin Empire. Geoffrey having recently died in a jousting accident, Henry appeared to favour his youngest son John. By 1188 an alliance had formed between the new French king Phillip Augustus and Richard. The latter did fealty to the former and had his claim to the French Angevin lands formally recognised in defaince of Henry II. Henry II attempted to regain control of his congenital possessions but he found most of the nobility had defected to Richard. Isolated following the fall of the city of Tours in July 1189 Henry II agreed to the humiliating Treaty of Colombieres by which he endorsed Richard’s inheritance of the whole Angevin Empire and the formal as opposed to titular acceptance of Phillip Augustus’ suzerainty of his lands in France as well as paying Phillip a substantial indemnity. The effort killed him two days later.