1. Civil War, Commonwealth and Revolution

2. Charles I Came to the throne in 1625 Engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England. The struggle centered around his need for money and parliament’s wish to limit his power. Charles, like his father believed in the ‘Divine Right of Kings’ Many Englishmen were unhappy at Charles’ interference in the English church. Levied taxes without parliament's consent. Religious conflicts aplenty during his reign: – Didn’t successfully help protestant forces during The Thirty Years War – Married a Roman Catholic princess – Appointed controversial William Laud to the post of Archbishop of Canterbury – Many believed he moved the Church of England too close to the R-C one (High Anglican Church) He also continued to persecute the Puritans (as his father had done before)

3. William Laud Charles’ Archbishop of Canterbury Beleived Roman Church was the true church but corrupted. Insisted Puritans conformed and observed all church ceremonies. Burned their books and prohibited their meetings Strict uniformity of ritual. Censored the pulpit Widely feared that he was allowing popery back in and the the Anglican church was being betrayed and abandoned. Laud also attempted to restore the power and authority of the bishops, church courts and clergy: – Church lands restored – Clergy’s power to enforce laws of God strengthened – Clerical appointments restructured and control of tithes. In short, moved Church of England back towards Rome. Pope even offered to make Laud a Roman Catholic bishop. Ultimately paid for his actions with his life

4. The Puritans Calvinism/Puritanism More democratic form of Protestantism Luther was socially conservative, Calvin, on the other hand sought to reform society. Calvin preached to businessmen and tradesmen Concept of ‘The Elect’ – unelected condemned to eternal damnation. If you did well in business – a sign of divine grace No intermediary required between God and His people – no need for bishops/priests. A church structure like that of the R-C church unnecessary. Puritans were Calvinists who had returned to England from Geneva to purify the Anglican church.

5. Puritans: Characteristics No ornamentation in church Do not make sign of cross No organ/hymns etc. Do not kneel at the mention of Christ’s name. Do not stand when the Gospel read. Easily recognisable – black suit with plain white shirt/blouse/apron Laughter, dancing, singing etc. seen as sinful. Thriftiness and diligence were traits to be cultivated. Object of life was to earn money thus showing yourself to be one of the elect.

6. Dissolving Parliament Many in Parliament believed Charles was too close to George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham (lovers?) Also Parliament unhappy with the policy of forced loans to pay for Spanish War. In 1628, Charles was pressured into signing the Petition of Rights: – Charles had to respect the rights and liberties of his people. – There could be no imprisonement without trial. – Taxes could not be raised without the consent of Parliament To add insult to injury, Sir John Eliot, the leading member of Parliament, persuaded his colleagues to restrict Charles’ ability to raise ‘Tunnage and Poundage’ to just one year. Eliot also attacked the changes being made to the Church of England. Charles understandably angry and sent his messenger, Black Rod, to dissolve Parliament, they refused him entry and passed three resolutions (which in effect stated that Charles was acting treasonously) Then Parliament dissolved – remained so for 11 years.

7. George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham

8. Scottish Presbyterians Recalling Parliament Charles, as well as upsetting the Puritans, set about ‘reforming’ the Scottish Kirk. In 1635 he gave his Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, free rein in Scotland Laud: – Re-introduced bishops – Forced Revised Book of Common Prayer onto the Presbyterians. – Turned St.Giles’ Church in Edinburgh into a Cathedral. Scots understandably angry. 1638 they drew up a National Covenant which basically told Charles to keep his hands off the Kirk Charles didn’t have the money to defeat the Scottish, the army he sent north was ineffective and fled before engaging the Scots (The Bishop’s War) If Charles was going to pacify Scotland he was going to need money thus he had to call Parliament back. In 1640, Parliament met again.

9. Short and Long Parliaments The ‘Short Parliament’ lasted just three weeks. Parliament and the King could not agree on anything. Charles dissolved Parliament and pressaged an army to foght the Scots. The English soldiers mutinied leaving the Scots to take much of Northern England. Scots then presented a bill to Charles detailing their expenses (840 pounds a day) stating that they would leave England if this was paid. Once again Charles needed money, so recalled Parliament. The so-called Long Parliament (1640-1652) Parliament (under John Pym) held all the cards and told Charles to: – Arrest Laud – Arrest Strafford (Chief of the army) – Abolish Ship Money – Abolish the Courts of High Commission.

10. Long Parliament (cont’d) Parliament felt that Charles was no longer fit to be king. Rumours about his relationship with Spain and an army plot to dissolve Parliament were rife 1642 Parliament made an attack on Charles and demanded his powers be transferred to them. Situation in Ireland proved the catalyst. Charles, in reaction, sent troops to arrest Pym and the other parliamnetarian leaders. They were, however, tipped off and fled. Parliament began to raise an army and Charles fled. In August 1642 Charles raised his standard at Nottingham Castle thus decalring war. The Long Parliament continued to ruke England for the next 10 years. During this time Parliament: – Destroyed the bureacratic machinery of the Monarchy – Declareded that Parliament could not be dissolved except by itself. – Did away with the King’s power of granting monopolies.

11. The First Civil War (1642-1646) So England drifted into civil war. The Cavaliers – the Royalists. Supported by the west and north of the country, by Roman Catholics and Anglicans. Parliamentarians – supported from London and the south-east. 2 factions in the tarliamentarian forces – Independents – more radical, Puritans – Roundheads – open to compromise with Charles, Presbyterian. Oliver Cromwell was an independent. Characteristics of the Independents (or ironsides): – peasants. – Champions of God – Plunder not their aim rather victory over the tyrant – Highly trained and motivated fighting force. Battle of Marston Moor 1644. Ironsides defeated royal army. The roundheads lost. Ironsides in the ascendancy. This meant the defeat of Presbyterian policy and their leaders were removed. Oliver Cromwell moved to fill the void joined the two forces together

12. The First Civil War (Cont’d) New Model Army (NMA) 1645 June 15th. The NMA defeated the Royalists in a decisive battle. Shortly afterwards document were discovered that destroyed prestige royal power had left. The fidhting rumbled on for a year but by 1646 Charles had fled to Scotland. The Scottish later handed him over to parliament for the princely sum of 400,000 pounds

13. The Second Civil War (1648) The radical Puritans still not happy – they wanted a more radical transformation of the government and no compromise with the King This resulted in a second civil war. In secret, Charles had been preparing to launch a new war against the New Model Army. Allied with the Presbyterians, Puritans and Scottish. However, by the end of August 1648, the Royalists had been routed and Charles was imprisoned. ‘Pride’s purge’ ‘The Rump Parliament’ This new parliament declared on 4 th January, 1649: “..that the people are under God, the origin of all just power; that the Commons of England, in parliament assembled, being chosen by and representing the people, have the supreme power in the nation; and that whosoever is enacted or declared for law by the Commons in Parliament assembled, hath the force of law, and all the people of this nation are concluded thereby, although the consent of the king or the House of Peers be not had thereunto.”

14. Execution of Charles 1649 On 9 th, January 1649, Charles I was found guilty of treason, he was ”..a public enemy to the good of the people of this nation.” The next day he was executed, an execution that proved a propaganda defeat for his enemies. First, and last, English monarch to be ‘legally executed’

15. Commonwealth and Protectorate 1649-1660. England a republic. May 1649, Free Commonwealth declared. The Monarchy was abolished as well as the Anglican Church and the House of Lords. What replaced these institutions? – There were 4 separate constitutions between 1649 and 1659. – Rump Parliament until 1653 – 1653 Divine Favour – Assembly of Saints – ‘Barebones Parliament’ The barebones parliament couldn’t agree on anything and handed power back to Cromwell. Cromwell, the Council of State and radicals within parliament attempted to unite the nation. However, Puritans had become unpopular due to regicide and the austerity of their policies. From 1653 Cromwell was essentially a dictator.

16. Commonwealth and Protectorate (cont’d) The Protectorate/Commonwealth ultimately failed. Why? Crowell wanted England to convert to the things of God and become more willing to obey the commands of God. He believed it was not society that needed to be transformed but the behavior of men and because Cromwell believed he was fulfilling God’s will he governed arbitrarily (i.e. imprisoned men without trial) In effect he became a king but unlike Charles he was not constrained by parliament. He was God’s servant just as James I and Charles I had believed themselves to be. He became what he detested.

17. After Cromwell Crowell died in 1658. Despite the shortcomings of the Commonwealth, while he lived Cromwell had kept the army and the gentry in balance. On his death the Republic collapsed, his son, Richard had neither the personality nor the leadership qualities of his father. General Monck, came down to England from Scotland and assumed control of England for 18 months. He called a new parliament which invited Charles the first’s son, also Charles (II) back. The people of England had grown tired of the chaos, taxes and violence of God’s kingdom.

18. Changes in Community From the Tudors onwards the Court had been the centre of national authority, influence, power, reward and intellectual inspiration There was a belief in hierarchical order, obedience to an established church and the monarch and deference to one’s social superiors. After 1660 these values changed – the court was no longer the unchallenged centre of intellectual and cultural influence. The City of London and Parliament were rival sources of power and influence The established church became one of many religious communities. It was the largest and most socially accepted but that was all. Separation gave rise to religious competition, one could freely move from sect to sect Non-conformist- alternative approaches to God.  In short, although Anglicanism was the established church it no longer had the power/authority of before.  One universal truth emerged from the civil wars, that was that no one universal truth was to be had or was needed.  A single truth was unnecessary. It had turned out that no one was right and no one was wrong.  The English community had changed from one founded on the concepts of hierarchy, uniformity and personal loyalty to one founded on the concepts of difference and mutual toleration.

19. Restoration Law, custom and Parliament were interwoven with the Kingly office. Thus the restoration of law and Parliament needed a restoration of the King. Monarchy restored unconditionally As were the House of Lords and the Anglican Church. Charles II, though, did not have the power of his father. No independent executive authority and no longer had the power to tax independent of Parliament Charles tried to rule from as broad a base as possible. Granted no special favours. All found positions of power – royalists, parliamentarians, old Cromwellians

20. Restoration (cont’d) He wanted to restore the Anglican Church but in a form acceptable to Puritans He also wanted to grant freedom of expression to Roman Catholics and Puritans. However this proved impossible for two reasons: – The Anglican majority in Parliament believed Charles wanted to restore Roman Catholicism. – Puritan leaders made unreasonable demands. Therefore, Charles ultimately had to accept the Act of Uniformity. Ultimately the enthusiasm for the Restoration cooled for three reasons: – Religious policy – Foreign policy – Taxation

21. Restoration Cooling Religious Policy – Charles had been exiled in Catholic Courts of Paris, Cologne and Paris – His sister was married to brother of Louis XIV – The R-C church was safer for the monarchy than the non-conformist churches (e.g. more authority and uniformity) - attractive to Charles – Charles made a secret agreement with Louis XIV – Declaration of Indulgence – The Test Act 1673 – On his deathbed Charles shut out Anglican priests and smuggled in an R-C priest to give him the last sacrament and absolution. Foreign Policy – Two Dutch wars. Both failures – hugely expensive and resulted in no change – English aided by French in these wars which was unpopular as the French were Catholic, were seen as principal rivals by London merchants and Charles had signed an agreement with them guaranteeing that England would not import industrial products to France. Economic Policy – After Cromwell there had been a big fall in public expenditure. – The Dutch wars, however, had proved expensive and taxes had been imposed.

22. The Whigs and The Tories The so-called Exclusion Movement saw the emergence of 2 major political parties. James, Charles’ brother, was an open convert to the R-C church. Because of this, a faction wanted to exclude him from the succession while another wished to include him. Those who supported James were the Tories The opposing faction were the Whigs The Clarendon Codes (1662 and 1664) and the Test Act of 1673

23. James II Determined to advance the cause of Roman Catholicism in England 1687 saw the Declaration of Indulgence and the suspension of the Test Act. James filled the army and government institutions with R-C supporters. This infuriated Parliament, but worse was to come - in 1688 a son and heir was born to James, a succession of Catholics was now guaranteed This caused much anxiety and negotiations were begun with William of Orange and Mary (James’ Protestant daughter). William landed in 1688 on the south coast and James fled to France on December 11th 1688. For the next 50 years the possibility of a restoration of James, his son and then grandson caused great anxiety in England.

24. Glorious Revolution and the End of the Stuarts 1689 Bill of Rights Toleration Act 1701 Act of Settlement King Billy of the Boyne William died in 1702 (after Mary) and his younger sister Anne became queen England grew stronger Scottish jealousy led to disaster in Panama (1698) 1707 Act of Union with Scotland War of Spanish Succession. Whigs supported it, Tories didn’t. Ultimately, Anne sided with the Tories. Treaty of Utrecht. Anne died in 1715 and the Act of Succession meant that the Crown passed to a little-known relative of James’s from Hanover, George (I) 1715 and 1745 Scottish rebellions. The Jacobites The ‘Old’ Pretender and the ‘New’ Pretender (Bonnie Prince Charlie)

25. The Four Georges George I: (1714-1727) – Elector of Hanover. Didn’t like England. Spoke no English. Only tolerated because he was Protestant. Spent much of his time in Hanover and buried there. George II (1727-1760) – More intersted in Britain and politics than his father had been. During his reign Britain became a world class power. A good soldier and the last Britisdh king to lead his troops intop battle at Dettingen (1743) As wizth all Hanoverian kings, George hated his son who was to become George III on his father’s death George III (1760-1820) – British born and bred and very proud of the fact. Blamed for losing American colonies and trying to tamper with the British Constitution. Became very unpopular after the loss of America but when his madness set in there was much sympathy for him. His son ruled as Prince regent from 1810 to 1820 and unltimately became George IV. George IV (1820-1830) – Fat, vain and lazy. Married catholic widow, Mrs Fitzherbet and then lied about doing so. Spent lots of money while the country was going through it’s first period of industrial hardship in its history

26. Fighting the French The 18th Century was full of wars, when Britian was involved it was invariably against the French War of Spanish Succession 1701-1714 – On the surface a war about who was going to be King of Spőain but in reality it was an attempt to mstop the increasing power of the French King. Marlaboriugh won victories at Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenard and Malplaquet. Britian gained bases at Gibraltar and Minorca, plus most of North America. War of Captain Jenkins’ Ear 1739 – On the surface a war about whether the Spanish had the right to cut off an English Captain’s ear. In reality a war about whether Britain should be allowed to muscle in on Spain’s monopoly of South American trade. War of the Austrian Succession 1740-1748 – On the surface a war about who should be emperor/Empress of Austria but really about curbing the French King’s power. George II defeated French at Dettingen. Battle of Culloden, British defeated at Fontenoy. No decisive winner between the old enemies Seven Year’s War 1756-1763 – On the surface a war instiageted by the Germans invading Poland. Realy about worl domination (by the English/French). British ended up fighting the French throughout the world and by the war’s end, Britian had Quebec, ahd driven the French out of India, had won the battle of Minden and destroyed the French fleet at Quiberon bay. A great success for the British.

27. Industrial Revolution (Part 1) Britain can be said to have created the modern world in all its glory and splendour and misery and squalor and vice. Wealth beyond dreams and poverty beyond nightmares. The industrial revolution created Britain and transformed a people. In the end Kings and the like don’t matter much. Things like food and clothing do. Britian became the first superpower in the world by trying to get a bit more food on the market. English were lucky compared to other Countries (Scottish/Irish), not tied to the land. Also English nobles actually took an interest in farming. Contrast Marie Antoinettes model village at Versailles with George III’s experimental farm at Windsor. Agricultural innovation 1: English farmers no longer left fields fallow rather they practised crop rotation using the turnip. Viscount Townshend popularised crop rotation. Also a new machine for planting seeds, Jethro Tull. Agricultural innovation 2: Selective Breeding used in creating larger sheep (New Leicesters), shire horses (could pul lmore), pigs and cows (more leat,milk etc.) Agricultural innovation 3: Enclosure Act. Creation of bigger farms mant more efficiency. However, enclosures act resulted in the powerful robbing the poor (in Scotland land clearance particularly bad), yet the industrial revolution could never have happened with this Act. Balancing the individual against the common good.

28. Industrial Revolution (Part 2) English Roads: So bad in the eighteenth centurythat i9mpossible to get anywhere. The good roads were turnpike roads (i.e. had to pay a toll), Roads improved with the invention of tarmacadam. Canals and aqueducts: Duke of Bridgewater had a lot of coal on his estate but coulsdn’t trransport it by road so built a canal from Worsley to Manchester, wanted to join it up to other canals thus creating a network. Porblems arose when canal had to cross a river, so the Duke invented the aqueduct. Revolutionising the cloth trade: Looms in every house in the eighteenth century. A cottage industry. Extra income for the family and good quality cloth. But all this was to change. (wool made Britain rich-paid for churches, created a business class, the chancellor of England took his seat in the House of Commons on a Woolsack) – THE SPINNING JENNY AND OTHER MACHINES: Flying shuttle, Spinning Jenny, Arkwright’s Water Frame and Factories. – More Speed: The Mule and steam The utilisation of steam meant that factories could now be built anywhere and towns would spring up around them. Steam meant that work could go on 24 hours a day, shift working was created alog with factory hooters and the like. The factory began to regulate people’s lives in much the same way as the Church had in Medieval times. Not everybody happy with the new innovations. Factroes attacked, machines destroyed. Luddites best known of the anti-machine groups.

29. Industrial Revolution (Part 3) Life was hard in the factories. Owners controlled lives of their workers. He built the workers houses, provided the workers with a factory shop. Children worked in the factories, no trade unions, no strikes. Wages were tiny, no sewers, no running water – a recipe for disaster. Not all factory owners were ruthless capitalists e.g. Robert Owen at New Lanark James Watt and the steam Engine. He did not invent it merely improved greatly on what had gone before, primarily by employing a condenser. Steam engines became more efficient, faster, more relíable and more economical. The steam engine created a demand for coal which created a new deep-shaft mining industry, it created a demand for iron thus stimulatung that industry. Eventually Watts engine became strong enough to drive heavy vehicles and so began the Age of Steam. Locomotion: ‘Puffing Billy’ – William Hedley. George Stephenson – ‘Stephenson’s Rocket’ The Rise of Iron: Huge growth in demand for Iron. Huge advances in Iron production. Smelting on a charcoal fire waqs the norm until the Darby family came along. Ironbridge over the River Severn is testament to their work. Industrial revolution not all dirt and grime also a period of beauty e.g. Fine cutlery, pottery towns (Wedgewood)

30. Why Britain? Obviously the term ‘industrial revolution’ was coined after the fact yet people must have realised that things were changing quickly. Parts of the country were getting rich, artists were exploring the themes of progress and industrialisation. But why England? – An island – Rivers/Ports and canals – Raw materials – ‘Have a go’ attitude of lords and nobles