Major Theories For Understanding Human Development Photo: Robert Brenner/Photo Edit FIGURE 2.8 Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes the social context of cognitive development. Why might an older sibling be effective for promoting learning in the zone of proximal development?

Learning Objectives Explain the concept of theory and discuss how theories contribute to the study of development

Learning Objectives Explain the basic concepts of seven major theories and examine the implications of each theory for the study of human development: Evolutionary theory Psychosexual theory Cognitive developmental theories Theories of learning Cultural theory Social role theory Systems theory

What is a Theory? A logical system of concepts Three questions to ask: Helps explain observations Contributes to development of body of knowledge Three questions to ask: Which phenomena is the theory trying to explain? What assumptions does the theory make? What does the theory predict? APA Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology This slide describes the basic characteristics (theory) of the science of psychology (suggested learning outcome 2.1).

Requirements for Theories of Development What is the direction of change over the lifespan? What are the mechanisms that account for growth from conception through old age? Do these mechanisms vary across the life span? How relevant are early experiences for later development? APA Goal 1: Knowledge base of Psychology APA Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology This slide describes the basic characteristics (theory) of the science of psychology (suggested learning outcome 2.1) as well as discusses overarching themes in psychology (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

Requirements for Theories of Development How do physical, cognitive, emotional, and social functions interact? How do the environmental and social contexts affect individual development? What factors are likely to place the person at risk at specific periods of the life span? APA Goal 1: Knowledge base of Psychology APA Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology This slide describes the basic characteristics (theory) of the science of psychology (suggested learning outcome 2.1) as well as discusses overarching themes in psychology (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

The Theory of Evolution Darwin emphasized adaptive value of behavior and physical characteristics to specific environments: Natural selection Fitness, or reproductive success Adaptation Inclusive fitness APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology (suggested learning outcome 1.4) as well as the variability in behavior within and across species (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

The Theory of Evolution Ethology Studies the survival value of unique adaptive behavior and its evolutionary history Evolutionary psychology Studies long-term historical origins of behavior APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcomes for Goals 1.2 and 1.4. Specifically, overarching themes of the variability and continuity of behavior within and across species are discussed, as well as a discussion of the major perspectives of psychology.

Evolutionary Theory – Implications for Human Development Evolutionary theory highlights three phases of the life span Healthy growth and development leading up to the reproductive period Success in mating and the conception of offspring Parenting offspring to survive and bear their own offspring APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

Concepts of Evolutionary Theory Table 2.1 Basic Concepts of Evolutionary Theory APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

Psychosexual Theory Children move through a series of stages Confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations Healthy personality development Determined by how parents manage child’s early sexual and aggressive drives Focuses on how individuals resolve conflicts between drives APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also presents psychosexual theory to help explain psychological phenomena (suggested learning outcome 1.3).

Psychosexual Theory Freud believed that all behavior is motivated Unconscious Stores powerful, primitive motives Drives, or libido Sexual and aggressive forces that desire to be satisfied Id, ego, and superego Three structures of personality APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also presents psychosexual theory to help explain mental processes (suggested learning outcome 1.3).

Psychosexual Theory Stages of development Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

Psychosexual Theory Defense mechanisms Repression Projection Reaction formation Regression Displacement Rationalization Isolation Denial Sublimation APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide uses the concepts and language of psychosexual theory and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

Psychosexual Theory – Implications for Human Development The psychosexual approach recognizes: The tension between interpersonal and intrapsychic demands help shape personality The influences of childhood experiences on adult behavior The importance of motives, emotions, and fantasies The role of sexual impulses during childhood APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide describes how psychosexual theory can be used explain mental processes and psychological phenomena (suggested learning outcome 1.3).

Cognitive Developmental Theories Cognition The process of organizing and making meaning of experience Two cognitive developmental theories Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

Basic Concepts in Piaget’s Theory Equilibrium Schemes Operations Assimilation Accommodation APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

Basic Concepts in Piaget’s Theory Figure 2.6 Adaptation = Assimilation + Accommodation APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

Basic Concepts in Piaget’s Theory Four stages of cognitive development: Sensorimotor Stage (0-18 months) Preoperational Stage (18 months-6 years) Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) Enables scientific reasoning Formal Operational Stage (11 years on) Knowledge is created through active engagement Novelty promotes cognitive development APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also presents developmental changes in behavior/mental processes across the life span (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

Vygotsky’s Concepts of Cognitive Development Vygotsky is an interactionist Human development can only be understood within a social-historical framework Cognitive development is a socially mediated process Zone of proximal development Range of tasks that the child cannot handle alone Can accomplish with help of adults, more skilled peers APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology APA Goal 8: Sociocultural and International Awareness This slide introduces basic concepts for a major theory in psychology (suggested learning outcome 1.4) as well as explains how sociocultural contexts influence development (suggested learning outcome 8.2).

Basic Concepts of Cognitive Development Theories Table 2.3 Basic Concepts of Cognitive Developmental Theories

Theories of Learning Social learning theory emphasizes: Learning via observation and imitation Role of modeling Learning via vicarious reinforcement Social cognition rather than a social learning approach How is efficacy the culmination of this learning process?

Cognitive Behaviorism Study of thoughts, ideas, and memories that influence behavior Edward Tolman Learner develops a cognitive map Mental representation of the learning environment APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates theory representing learning and cognition (suggested learning outcome 1.2) as well as concepts that describe antecedents and consequences of behavior from one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology (suggested learning outcomes 1.3 and 1.4). This slide also compares and contrasts major perspectives of cognitive theories (suggested learning outcome 1.4).

Cognitive Behaviorism Figure 2.10 The Six Cognitive and Affective Dimensions that Influence Behavior

Cultural Theory Emphasizes: Meaning, or the behavior shared by a group of people An individual’s psychological experiences are shaped through: Cultural pathways Cultural determinism Enculturation APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology APA Goal 8: Sociocultural and International Awareness This slide discusses basic concepts of a major theoretical perspective that account for psychological phenomena (suggested learning outcomes 1.3 and 1.4). This slide also represents social processes as they relate to sociocultural dimensions (suggested learning outcome 1.2) as well as explains how sociocultural contexts influence development (suggested learning outcome 8.2).

Cultural Theory How do individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ? APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology APA Goal 8: Sociocultural and International Awareness This slide discusses basic concepts of a major theoretical perspective that account for psychological phenomena (suggested learning outcomes 1.3 and 1.4). This slide also represents social processes as they relate to sociocultural dimensions (suggested learning outcome 1.2) as well as explains how sociocultural contexts influence development (suggested learning outcome 8.2).

Cultural Theory Implications for human development Culture and biological development interact Determine how each period of life is experienced Links to the psychosocial approach All cultures must be able to adapt to changes in economic, environmental, and intercultural conditions to survive APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology APA Goal 8: Sociocultural and International Awareness This slide explains how sociocultural contexts influence development (suggested learning outcome 8.2). The overarching theme of the interaction of heredity and environment are also discussed (suggested learning outcome 1.2). This slide compares and contrasts major perspectives (suggested learning outcome 1.4).

Social Role Theory Process of socialization and personality development Via the individual’s participation in increasingly diverse and complex social roles APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide discusses basic concepts of a major theoretical perspective that account for psychological phenomena/behaviors (suggested learning outcomes 1.3 and 1.4). This slide also represents theory related to learning and cognition (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

Social Role Theory Three elements of concern: Role enactment Social roles Role expectations Four dimensions of social roles Number of roles Intensity of role involvement Amount of time the role demands Degree of structure or flexibility APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

Social Role Theory – Implications for Human Development Social roles: Provide consistency to life experiences Prompt new learning Personal relationships and social groups help contribute to one’s social identity APA Goal 1: Knowledge base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4.

Social Role Theory Table 2.7 Basic Concepts from Social Role Theory APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide compares and contrasts major perspectives (suggested learning outcome 1.4).

Systems Theory Systems are characterized by relationships among component parts The whole is more than the sum of its parts An open system Adaptive self-organization Components and the whole are always in tension APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also discusses relevant levels of analysis (i.e., system instead of individual; suggested learning outcome 1.2).

Ecological Systems Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner argues that individuals develop within a multilayered system of relationships Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also discusses relevant levels of analysis (i.e., individual, system, society/culture; suggested learning outcome 1.2).

Ecological Systems Theory FIGURE 2.14 A Topography of the Relationship Among Systems This is a hypothetical model of a person’s ecological contexts. Over time, the specific microsystems change, and a person becomes involved in new microsystems. The impact of previous systems may continue to influence a person as a result of learning, memories, and internalized values. The two-way arrows suggest that individuals influence their contexts and contexts influence the individuals who participate in them. Adapted from Bronfenbrenner (1979)

Developmental Systems Theory Emphasizes the ongoing interaction across many levels of the human organism (genetic to behavioral) Focuses on: The individual in the setting Plasticity, both in the individual, and in an environmental context APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also discusses relevant levels of analysis (i.e., individual, system, society/culture; suggested learning outcome 1.2).

Systems Theory – Implications for Human Development The family system is maintained by patterns of communication Interdependence Change in one family member is accompanied by changes in others Interventions at any level of the environment can affect development APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide demonstrates one of the major theoretical perspectives in psychology and applies to the suggested learning outcome 1.4. This slide also discusses relevant levels of analysis (i.e., individual, system, society/culture; suggested learning outcome 1.2) as well as an interpretation of behavior at the level of the family system (suggested learning outcome 1.3).

Systems Theory Insert Table 2.8 Basic Concepts of Systems Theory APA Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology This slide compares and contrasts major perspectives (suggested learning outcome 1.4).

Case Study – Jack Manasky and His Daughter Marilyn Reflections What defense mechanisms might Jack be using? How might the differences in Jack and Marilyn’s “cultures” affect their cognitive reasoning? How might Marilyn use social learning techniques to modify her father’s coffee-drinking behavior? APA Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology This slide offers students the opportunity to use critical thinking effectively (APA suggested learning outcome 3.1) by evaluating the quality of information and behavioral claims, developing sound arguments, and articulating problems clearly (3.3 & 3.4). APA Goal 7: Communication Skills This slide provides students the opportunity to communicate effectively in a variety of formats such as writing, oral communication, interpersonal communication, and collaboration (APA suggested learning outcomes 7.1, 7.2, 7.4, and 7.5).

Case Study – Jack Manasky and His Daughter Marilyn Reflections What cultural norms for the relationship of an adult daughter and an aging father are at play? What reciprocal roles do you see between Jack and Marilyn? What feedback mechanisms encourage or discourage certain behaviors between Jack and Marilyn? APA Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology This slide offers students the opportunity to use critical thinking effectively (APA suggested learning outcome 3.1) by evaluating the quality of information and behavioral claims, developing sound arguments, and articulating problems clearly (3.3 & 3.4). APA Goal 7: Communication Skills This slide provides students the opportunity to communicate effectively in a variety of formats such as writing, oral communication, interpersonal communication, and collaboration (APA suggested learning outcomes 7.1, 7.2, 7.4, and 7.5). This slide describes the basic characteristics (theory) of the science of psychology (suggested learning outcome 2.1) as well as discusses overarching themes in psychology (suggested learning outcome 1.2).

Your Perspective What theories do you find most relevant to your current stage of development, and why? Evolutionary theory Psychosexual theory Cognitive developmental theories Theories of learning Cultural theory Social role theory Systems theory APA Goal 4: Application of Psychology This slide demonstrates how psychological concepts, theories, and research findings can apply to everyday life and be used to explain and guide social issues (APA suggested learning outcomes 4.3 and 4.4).