LEARNING  a relatively permanent change in behavior as the result of an experience.  essential process enabling animals and humans to adapt to their changing environments, and thus survive.

Behaviorism  Explains learning by studying behavior which can be observed & measured

 Two main theories which psychologists studying behaviorism use to explain learning: –Classical Conditioning –Operant Conditioning

CLASSICAL Conditioning - Stimulus- something that produces a reaction -Response- The reaction from a person or animal June 2

CLASSICAL Conditioning  Simple form of learning in which stimulus and response work together  Neutral stimulus occurs with a stimulus that evokes a response  Eventually, the neutral stimulus comes to evoke a similar response

PAVLOV  1920s  Trained dogs to associate a tone with a food-reward  Before experiment the dogs showed no reaction to the tone sound  After the tone is paired with food – the dogs begin to salivate when they hear the tone

Terms  US  US = (Unconditioned stimulus) = causes a response that is automatic or not learned  UR  UR = (Unconditioned response) = Automatic Response to US  CS  CS = (Conditioned stimulus) = learned response to a stimulus that was neutral  CR  CR = (Conditioned response) = learned response to neutral stim.

Needed Factors for Conditioning:  Strong stimulus  Order in which presented is important  Number of trials  Spacing of trials

Conditioning Terminology  Taste Aversion= learned avoidance to a particular food  Extinction  Extinction = gradual disappearance of a conditioned response once the conditioned stimulus is no longer reinforced

Conditioning Terminology  Spontaneous Recovery= remember the learned behavior after time “off”  Generalization  Generalization = act of responding in the same way to similar stimuli  Discrimination= Responding differently to stimuli that are not similar

Case of “Little Albert”  1920 – published study of “Little Albert”  Albert was a 11 th month old boy  Was not easily frightened  Liked animals – psychologists then paired a loud, harsh sound with the presence of a rat..Result??? Little Albert Video

 Albert became frightened of rats and eventually all small, furry animals  Was this ethical?????

Applications of classical conditioning  Two methods for reducing fears are based on the principle of extinction: MauryMaury  Flooding  Flooding = a person is exposed to the (fear- provoking) harmless stimulus until the fear is extinguished  Systematic desensitization  Systematic desensitization = person is taught relaxation techniques & then exposed gradually to fearful stimulus  Period 6 – Jan4

OTHER USES FOR CLASSICAL CONDITIONING  DESENSITIZATION Step 1Step 1 –Pictures –From a Distance –Close- up to fear  COUNTERCONDITIONING – –PLEASANT STIMULUS IS PAIRED W/ UNPLEASANT STIMULUS

OPERANT Conditioning  Learning is strengthened when behavior is followed by reinforcement  Learning from the consequences of actions

OPERANT Conditioning  Principles of Operant Conditioning were developed by B.F. Skinner  Ideas based on studies with animals

Skinner Box  Typically contains: one or more levers which an animal can press – one or more levers which an animal can press – one or more stimulus lights – one or more places in which reinforcers likefood can be delivered. – one or more places in which reinforcers like food can be delivered.

Reinforcement  Process by which a stimulus increases the chances of a preceding behavior

Types of Reinforcers  Primary  Primary = reinforcers that function due to biological make-up of the organism food, water, warmth  Secondary  Secondary =Value must be learned Ex. money, attention, social approval, good grades, etc.

Types of Reinforcers  Positive  Positive = increase frequency of the behavior they follow when applied = receives something they want = brings pleasant consequences  Negative  Negative = A particular behavior is increased by the introduction of an unpleasant element - ex. = discomfort, fear, & social disapproval Pd1- Jan4

Rewards  Increase the frequency of a behavior  Liked reinforcers increase frequency of behavior –concrete rewards –concrete rewards (money, toys, stickers, candy, etc.) intangible rewards – intangible rewards (affection, praise, attention, etc.).

Punishment  Unwanted events that decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow when applied

E.L. Thorndike's Law of Effect  (1) Rewards increased the likelihood of responses which preceded them  (2) punishments decreased the likelihood of responses which preceded them.  Therefore, punishment either decreases or eliminates a particular behavior.

Schedule of reinforcement  Fixed-Ratio (FR)  Fixed-Ratio (FR) = –Reinforcement is given after a set number of times the behavior is performed

Fixed-Interval (FI)Fixed-Interval (FI) = Reinforcement is given after a set amount of time the behavior has been performed

Variable-Interval (VI)Variable-Interval (VI) = Reinforcement is given after varying amounts of time the behavior has been performed

Variable-Ratio (VR)Variable-Ratio (VR) = Reinforcement is given after varying number of times the behavior has been performed Ex. Playing slot machines

Schedule of Reinforcement  When and how often reinforcement occurs  Continuous- reinforcement every time a behavior occurs  Partial- Not reinforced everytime

 Extinction- Occurs when performance is repeated without reinforcement  Shaping- Way of teaching complex behaviors by reinforcing behavior in steps

Cognitive Psychology Studies what people and animals know because of learning See learning as purposeful and not mechanical.

Cognitive Psychology Psychologists believe many behaviors are learned without reinforcement… 2 types of learning without reinforcement are: Latent Learning Observational Learning

Cognitive Psychology LATENT LEARNING -- Learning that remains hidden until it is needed. Observation Learning We acquire knowledge and skills through observation and imitation. Studied by Albert Bandura Kids learn from parents Most learning is done this way Learning from the media

Is Aggression Learned? How many hours of TV do you watch? Most children: hours a day Most children see an average 8,000 murders and 10,000 acts of violence by the end of 6th grade.