1. Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment
The Little Albert experiment showed that emotional reactions such as fear can be taught through classical conditioning.
Eleven-month-old Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat rather than be amused by it.
Psychologists achieved this by pairing the rat with something that Albert would find instinctively frightening.
The Experiment
After they paired the rat with loud noises, Albert showed a fear of the rat even when there was no noise.
Albert’s fear spread to similar objects.
By today’s standards, the experiment was unethical.
The Results –

2. What do you think?
How did Watson and Rayner condition Little Albert to fear white rats?
Do you think you have learned to fear or enjoy certain things because of conditioning or association? Explain.

5. Section 1 at a Glance Classical Conditioning
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov pioneered research into a form of learning known as classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, one stimulus causes a response that is usually caused by another stimulus.
Classical conditioning can help people adapt to the environment and can help eliminate troubling fears or other behaviors.

6. Principles of Classical Conditioning
Conditioning is a type of learning that involves stimulus-response connections.
Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which one stimulus calls forth the response that is usually called forth by another stimulus.
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov used dogs in his studies of classical conditioning.
He trained the dogs to associate the sound of a bell with food.
They learned that the sound of the bell meant food was coming.
Pavlov’s Dogs
Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that causes a response that is automatic, not learned
Unconditioned response: caused by an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response: a learned response to a neutral stimulus
Conditioned stimulus: a previously neutral stimulus that causes a conditioned response
Stimulus and Response –

9. Adapting to the Environment
Taste Aversions
Taste aversion: learned response to a particular food
One-trial learning
Extinction
Extinction: Disappearance of conditioned response when unconditioned stimulus no longer follows conditioned stimulus
Spontaneous Recovery
Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after some time has passed
Generalization and Discrimination
Generalization: The tendency to respond in the same way to stimuli that have similar characteristics
Discrimination: The act of responding differently to stimuli that are not similar to each other

10. Section 2 at a Glance Operant Conditioning
Psychologist B.F. Skinner helped pioneer research into a form of learning known as operant conditioning, in which individuals learn from the consequences of their actions.
Operant conditioning depends on the use of reinforcements and a schedule to execute them.
The principles of operant conditioning can be applied to help people or animals learn to combine a series of simple steps or actions to form complex behaviors.

11. Operant Conditioning Main Idea Reading Focus
Operant conditioning occurs when people or animals have learned to respond to a certain situation.
Reading Focus
How are operant conditioning and reinforcement related?
What are the main types of reinforcers?
How do rewards and punishments shape learning?
How do schedules of reinforcement influence learning?
What are some applications of operant conditioning?

12. How can a squirrel learn how to water ski?

13. Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, people and animals learn to do certain things—and not to do others—because of the results of what they do.
They learn from the consequences of their actions.
In operant conditioning, voluntary responses are conditioned.
B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioning by using the “Skinner box.”
His experiment demonstrated reinforcement, or the process by which a stimulus (food) increases the chances that a preceding behavior (a rat pressing a lever) will occur again.
Knowledge of results is often all the reinforcement that people need to learn new skills.

15. How does reinforcement result in operant conditioning?
Reading Check
Describe
How does reinforcement result in operant conditioning?
Answer: In operant conditioning, people and animals learn to do certain things because of the results of what they do. Reinforcement increases the chances that such behavior will occur again.

16. Types of Reinforcers Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that function due to the biological makeup of an organism.
Secondary reinforcers are learned by being paired with primary reinforcers.
Money is a secondary reinforcer because we have learned that it may be exchanged for primary reinforcers like food and shelter.
Positive and Negative Reinforcers
Positive reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior.
In positive reinforcement, a person receives something he or she wants following the behavior.
Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior when they are removed.
In negative reinforcement, a behavior is reinforced because something unwanted stops happening or is removed following the behavior.

18. Rewards and Punishments
Like positive reinforcement, rewards help encourage learning.
Some psychologists, however, prefer positive reinforcement because the concept of reinforcement can be explained without trying to guess what an organism will find rewarding.
Punishments
Punishments are quite different from negative reinforcers.
Punishments are unwanted events that decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow.
Punishments tend to work only when they are guaranteed.
Most psychologists believe it is preferable to reward children for desirable behavior than punish them for unwanted behavior.

20. Schedules of Reinforcement
The effectiveness of a reinforcement depends on the schedule of reinforcement—when and how often the reinforcement occurs.
Continuous reinforcement is the reinforcement of a behavior every time the behavior occurs.
Continuous reinforcement is not always practical or possible.
The alternative is partial reinforcement, which means a behavior is not reinforced every time the behavior occurs.
Continuous and Partial Reinforcement
Fixed-interval schedule: a fixed amount of time must elapse between reinforcements
Variable-interval schedule: varying amounts of time go by between reinforcements
Interval Schedules –

22. Extinction in Operant Conditioning
Ratio Schedule
Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses
Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses
Extinction in Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning, extinction results from repeated performances of the response without reinforcement.

23. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Shaping and Chaining
Shaping is a way of teaching complex behaviors in which one first reinforces small steps in the total activity.
Chaining is combining the steps of a sequence to progress toward a final action.
Chaining can be forward or backward.
Chaining can be used to teach complex behavior patterns to animals.
Programmed Learning
Programmed learning is based on shaping and chaining.
Developed by B.F. Skinner, it assumes that any task can be broken down into small steps.
Programmed learning does not involve punishments.
Instead, it reinforces correct responses.

24. Observational Learning
Observational learning is knowledge and skills acquired by observing and imitating others.
Modeling is basically a kind of imitation.
Vicarious reinforcement is the ability to learn from the experiences of another.
Observational learning and modeling account for much human learning.
Modeling
Television is a major source of informal observational learning.
Most health professionals agree that media violence contributes to aggression.
The Effects of Media Violence –

25. Click on the image to play the Interactive.

26. Behavior Modification
Classroom Discipline
Teachers are taught to pay attention to students when they are behaving appropriately and to ignore misbehavior that is not harmful to themselves or others.
Token Economics
People are “paid” to act correctly by earning rewards that can be cashed in for treats, merchandise, or privileges.

27. Personal Contracts
A personal contract is a personal behavior modification technique.
It works by first identifying a behavior you want to change, setting a goal for a new behavior, and creating a system of rewards or punishments that encourage the new behavior.