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 A carbon atom has 4 electrons available for bonding in its outer energy level.  To become stable, a carbon atom forms 4 covalent bonds that fills its outer energy level.  Carbon can bond with other carbon atoms.  It can also bond with many other elements.  When carbon atoms bond to each other, they form:  Straight chains  Branched chains  Rings  These structures can have any number of C atoms and can also include atoms of other elements, i.e., H, O, N

 The ability to bond in so many ways makes it possible to have a huge number of carbon structures.

Molecular Chains  Carbon compounds vary in size.  Large organic molecules are called biomolecules (macromolecules).  Proteins are examples of macromolecules.  Polymers = a large molecule formed when many smaller molecules (monomers) bond together.

 Many polymers are formed by condensation reactions, a chemical reaction.  In condensation, the monomers that bond together to form polymers have an –H and an –OH group that can be removed to form  H-O-H, a water molecule (H 2 O)  Polymers can be broken apart in a chemical reaction called hydrolysis.  Water is added in this process and the water causes the breakdown of the polymer.

 A carbohydrate is a biomolecule (macromolecule) made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.  Ratio = C-H 2 -O  Simple carbohydrate = simple sugar called monosaccharide  Glucose  Fructose  These are isomeres.  Glucose + fructose = sucrose, a disaccharide.  Sucrose = disaccharide (table sugar)  Sucrose is created through a condensation reaction.

 Polysaccharides = largest carbohydrate molecules  Polymers made of many monosaccharides (monomers), which are linked together.  Glycogen = linked glucose molecules  Animals store energy  Starch = linked glucose molecules  Plants store energy  Cellulose = linked glucose molecules  Plants use for structure  Forms cell walls (structure unique to plants)

 Large biomolecules (macromolecules) made mostly of carbon and hydrogen with a small amount of oxygen.  Fats  Oils  Waxes  Steroids  All except steroids are made of fatty acids joined to glycerol.  A fatty acid is a long chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms  Glycerol is an organic compound belonging to the alcohol family of organic compounds.

 Nonpolar  They will not dissolve in water because they are nonpolar and are not attracted by water molecules.  Remember that water is polar.

 Saturated fatty acids  Each carbon in the carbon chain is singly bonded to the other carbons – all carbons are bonded with a single bond.  Unsaturated fatty acids  Carbon atoms have double bonds with other carbon atoms, leave “empty” areas along carbon chain.  Fatty acids with more than one double bond are said to be polyunsaturated.  Many double bonds…

 Energy storage  Insulation  Protective coverings  Phospholipids  Cell membrane

 Essential to all life  Large complex polymer  Building blocks (monomers) are amino acids  20 amino acids  Make 1000s of proteins  Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen  Structure for tissues and organs  Cell metabolism

 Amino acids are linked together in condensation reactions.  Form a special covalent bond called a peptide bond  Proteins come in a variety of shapes and sizes.  The shape of the protein determines its function (what job it does).

Important because…  Muscle tissue contraction  Transportation of O 2 in the bloodstream  Providing immunity  Regulating other proteins  Chemical reactions – enzymes speed up chemical reactions (p. 162)

 Complex biomolecule (macromolecule) that stores cellular information  Polymer made of monomers called nucleotides  Nucleotides are made of :  Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus atoms arranged in 3 groups:  Nitrogenous base  Simple sugar (deoxyribose or ribose)  Phosphate group

 Deoxyribonucleic Acid  Master copy of an organism’s information (genetic) code  Instructions to form enzymes and structural proteins  Determines how an organism will look and act  This genetic code is passed on from parent to offspring.

 Ribonucleic Acid  Forms a copy of DNA  This copy is used for making proteins.  The chemical differences between RNA and DNA are minor but important.  DNA and RNA work together to make proteins.