Memory Chapter 8

Memory Memory: the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information Encoding: initial recording of information Storage: information saved for future use Retrieval: recovery of stored information

Three-System Memory Theory Proposes the existence of 3 different memory stores Sensory Memory: the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant (sight, sound, etc) Short Term Memory: Memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds Long Term Memory: Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve

Sensory Memory A momentary flash of lighting, the snapping of a twig—they all give us information which is forgotten right away Iconic memory: memory from the visual system Echoic memory: stores auditory information Sensory memory is stored for a VERY short time. If it does not pass to short term memory it is lost forever

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Sperling When exposed to just the letters for 1/20th of a second, people could only remember 4 or 5 letters accurately He did the experiment again, but sounded a low, high, or medium tone after exposing the people to the letters If the tone was high, they were told to look at the first line, if the tone was medium they looked at the middle, and if the tone was low they were told to look at the last line People were able to accurately write the letters. Therefore, they had been storing them all along. He determined that recalling the letters was possible as long as they were shown the letters for over one second.

Short Term Memory To retain information it must be stored in short tem memory Short term memory is the first form of memory in which information has meaning. However, it is only stored for a short period of time. It is not clear how things are transformed into short term memory

Short Term Memory Most that you can store is seven items Chunks: a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short term memory

Short Term Memory P B S F O X C N N A B C C B S M V N B C

Short Term Memory PBS FOX CNN ABC CBS MTV NBC

Rehearsal The repetition of information that has entered short term memory As long as information is repeated you can store it in your short term memory Type of rehearsal influences whether information is stored in long term or short term Elaborative rehearsal Mnemonic device

Working Memory A set of temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse information Contains a central executive processing that is involved in reasoning and decision making. The central executive coordinates the following: The visual store, verbal store, and episodic buffer

Working Memory Permits us to keep information in an active state briefly so that we can do something with the information. Example: when we are totaling a bill

Long Term Memory Material that enters from short term to long term memory enters a storage house of almost unlimited capacity. What does this mean? We have an immense storage capacity Certain kinds of brain damageno long term memory

Long Term Memory Modules Declarative Memory: Memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like. Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball, sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory. Semantic Memory: Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts Episodic Memory: Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context

Semantic Networks Semantic Networks: mental representations of clusters of interconnected information Example: think of everything you can think of that is red…or think of fruits…If you think of an apple on the first task, you are more likely to think of an apple on the second task.

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows-a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory

Retrieval Cues Who can name the seven dwarfs from Snow White? This is a difficult task because it involves recall Recall: Memory task in which specific information must be retrieved Retrieval cue: a stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information that is in long term memory

Retrieval Cues Examples: Words Emotions Sounds

Retrieval Cues When the retrieval cue is present the memory will come to mind For example: the smell of roasting turkey may evoke memories of thanksgiving

Levels of Processing Levels of Processing: the theory of memory that emphasizes the degree in which new material is mentally analyzed The more we process information the more likely we are to remember it

Explicit Memory Intentional or conscious recollection of information Example: when we try to remember a date

Implicit Memory Memories of which most people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior Example: skills that operate unconsciously such as jumping out of the way of a car

Priming A phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept later makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory of the word or concept You forget something, but then you see something that triggers it

Flash Bulb Memories Memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event Example: a car accident (something specific you remember vividly), the world trade center attack

Constructive Processes In Memory: Rebuilding the Past Constructive Processes: processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events Schemas: organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled

Memory in the Court Room Eye witnesses are prone to memory related errors When children are witnesses there may be increased errors Children’s memory may be highly susceptible to error when emotional content or stress is involved

Repressed and False Memories Controversy as to whether there is such a thing as a “repressed memory” Repressed Memory: recollections of events that are initially so shocking that the mind responds by pushing them into the unconscious Some supporters suggest that such memories may remain hidden possibly throughout a person’s life time

False Memory Develop when people are unable to recall the source of a memory of a particular event about which they have only vague recollection When the source of memory becomes unclear, people may become confused about whether they actually experienced the event or whether it was imagined. Ultimately, people come to believe that the event occurred. Such memories can be so vivid that they produce emotional reaction even though they are false

Autobiographical Memory Our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own life Encompass episodic memories about ourselves Example: we tend to forget information about our past that is incompatible with the way in which we currently see ourselves (college students forget their bad grades but remember their good ones)

Forgetting Why do we forget? We did not pay attention to the material in the first place (encoding failure) Decay: the loss of information in memory due to it not being used Interference: the phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information Cue dependent forgetting: forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory

Memory Dysfunctions Alzheimer’s Disease: an illness characterized by severe memory problems