1. Processes in Memory Three step process…
Encoding: processing information into the memory
Storage: retaining memories over time
Retrieval: getting information out of memory

2. Storage
Memories can be stored for differing amounts of time depending on how they are encoded
The Atkinson-Shiffrin theory (three-stage model) of storage includes 3 separate memory store
1. sensory memory - up to several seconds
2. short-term memory - up to 30 seconds
3. long-term memory - up to a lifetime

3. The Three-Stage Model
(attention)
(encoding)

4. Sensory Memory Holds information from ALL sensory input
Large Capacity & Limited Duration
Sensory memory enters into short-term memory through the process of attention
The longer we delay paying attention to sensory information, the more we forget
Iconic memory studied by George Sperling (1960)
Iconic
< 0.5 sec.
Echoic
3-4 sec.
Haptic
1-2 sec.

5. Short-Term Memory (STM)
AKA Working Memory
What we pay attention to in sensory memory moves into STM
Limited Capacity & Limited Duration
Short-term memory enters into long-term memory through encoding (rehearsal)

6. Limited Capacity of STM
Studied by George Miller (1956)
“The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two”
7±2

7. Increasing Capacity of STM
Chunking: grouping items together into familiar or easily manageable units
We remember numbers better than letters
Clustering: organizing information into categories

8. Limited Duration of STM
Studied by John Brown (1958)/Margaret Peterson & Lloyd Peterson (1959)
Made participants work on a counting task immediately after hearing meaningless three-consonant syllables read to them
Duration of short-term memory is less than 30 seconds WITHOUT REHEARSAL

9. Working Memory Model Studied by Baddeley & Hitch
Argues that the Atkinson-Shiffrin model simplifies STM; STM is more complex

10. Long Term-Memory (LTM)
What we rehearse in STM gets encoded into LTM
Unlimited Capacity & possibly Unlimited Duration
Automatically processed information bypasses sensory memory & STM stores
Contains multiple types of memories:
Explicit Memory: facts and experiences; learned consciously
AKA Declarative Memory
Types: Semantic & Episodic Memories
Implicit Memory: skills & conditioning; learned unconsciously
AKA Non-declarative Memory
Types: Procedural & Conditioned Memories

11. Types of Long Term-Memory

12. Flashbulb Memory Highly emotional memories of significant events
Events can be positive or negative; usually unique
Recall is more accurate and VIVID
Produce a clear, strong, and persistent memory
Does not mean that events are recollected correctly
May include wrong information
Where were you when:
September 11th terrorist
attacks took place?

13. How Memory is Organized
Schemas: A pre-existing mental framework that helps people to organize and interpret information
Prior encounters with the environment influence the way that we encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information
Scripts: A schema for an event
Very specific schema for a particular order of expected events in a particular context

14. Long-term Potentiation
How a memory is physically created in the brain
At the neural level (neuron)
Research has shown that new dendrites form and create connections to other neurons when new information comes into the brain
As these neurons learn to fire together, they get better at it and the connection between them strengthens
Making the memory stronger
This creates an “express lane” for information

15. Memory Stores Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Encoding
Structural
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
(space)
Very Large
7±2 Chunks
(limited)
Unlimited
Duration
(time)
Up to several seconds
Up to 30 seconds
Up to a lifetime