1. Memory

2. Memory the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information
3 Basic Processes:
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

3. Three-System Memory Theory
Sensory memory
the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant
types are dependent on the source of sensory information (iconic memory, echoic memory)
can store information for only a very short time, but its precision is high
can be destroyed or replaced with a new one

4. Short - term memory Chunk
memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds
Chunk
a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory
can be individual letters or numbers, or may consist of larger categories such as words or meaningful units

5. P B S F O X C N N A B C C B S M T V N B C

6. PBS FOX CNN ABC CBS MTV NBC

7. Rehearsal
the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory
information is maintained in the short-term memory or may transfer into long-term memory
Elaborative rehearsal
occurs when information is considered and organized in some fashion
expanding, linking to another memory, turning to image, transforming to some other way
Mnemonics
formal techniques for organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered

8. Working Memory
Some theorists view short - term memory as a working memory, in which information is retrieved and manipulated. In this view, it is a central executive processor involved in reasoning and decision- making
a set of temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse information
3 systems
visual store (visual and spatial information)
verbal store (speech, words, numbers)
episodic buffer (episodes or events)
It uses significant amount of cognitive resources during its operation. In turn, it makes us less aware of our surrounding.

9. Serial position effect
Long - term memory
memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve
Serial position effect
the ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears
primacy effect
items presented early in the list are remembered better
recency effect
items presented late in a list are remembered best

10. Memory Modules Declarative memory memory for factual information
Semantic memory
for general knowledge and facts about the world as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used infer other facts
Episodic memory
memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context
Procedural memory
memory for skills and habits

11. Semantic Networks
mental representations of clusters of interconnected information
Spreading activation
activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories

12. Neuroscience of memory
Hippocampus
aids in the initial encoding of information
Cerebral Cortex
where information is stored
Amygdala
involved with memories involving emotion

13. Recalling Long-Term Memory
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
the inability to recall information that one realizes one knows - a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory
Retrieval Cue
is a stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information that is in long-term memory

14. Recall
memory task in which specific information must be retrieved
Recognition
memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives

15. What are the names of the seven dwarves in the Disney Movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs?
Which of the following are the names of the seven dwarves in the Disney Movie Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs?
Goofy Bashful
Sleepy Sneezy
Smarty Happy
Scaredy Doc
Dopey Crazy
Wheezy Donald

16. Levels-of-processing Theory
emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed
the amount of information processing that occurs when material is initially encountered is central in determining how much of the information is ultimately remembered
information is processed in physical and sensory aspects
translated to meaningful units
analyzed in terms of meaning (wider context, associations)
the deeper the initial level of processing of information is, the longer the information will be retained

17. Forms of Memory Explicit memory
intentional or conscious recollection of information
Implicit memory
memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior
unclear dislike for an acquaintance
prejudice and discrimination

18. Priming
a phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept (prime) later makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory of the word or concept
Name the moon of Mars.
_ _ obos

19. Flashbulb Memories
memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event
memories that are exceptional are more easily retrieved (although not necessarily accurate) than are those relating to events that are commonplace
romantic experience, witnessing car accident, first airplane flight

20. Source amnesia
when an individual has a memory for some material but cannot recall where he or she encountered it before

21. Constructive Processes
processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events
experiences, guesses, inferences affect the memory we produce when we retrieve information
Schemas
organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled
are based not only on the specific material to which people are exposed, but also on their understanding of the situation, their expectations, and awareness of motivations of others

23. A basic principle is that some information gets lost during each process. You notice only a small part the world that confronts you; you encode only a small part of what you notice; and you retrieve only part of what was previously stored in your memory.

24. Memory in the Courtroom
eyewitness on trial
wordings of questions
weapons
Age
repressed memories - recollections of events that are initially shocking that the mind responds by pushing them into the unconscious
false memory - inaccurate or even wholly false
experience or imagination

25. Autobiographical Memory
incompatible with the way in which we currently see ourselves
particular periods of life are remembered more easily than others

26. Why We Forget Failure of encoding
Decay - loss of information in memory because of nonuse
Interference - the phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information
Cue-dependent forgetting - forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to revive information that is in memory

27. The Before and After of Forgetting
Proactive interference
interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material
Retroactive interference
interference in which there is difficulty in the recall of information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material

28. Memory Dysfunctions Alzheimer’s disease
an illness characterized in part by severe memory problems
Amnesia
memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties
retrograde amnesia
in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event
anterograde amnesia
in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury

29. Improving Memory keyword encoding specificity organization cues
effective note taking
practice and rehearse
don’t believe claims about drugs that improve memory