Research Methodology  Is defined as a highly intellectual human activity used in the investigation of nature and matter and deals specially with the manner in which data is collected, analysed and interpreted

Research- Meaning:  - Refers to a search of knowledge  - Art of scientific and systematic investigation  - Search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem

Objective of a research:  to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it(exploratory or formulative research studies)  To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group(descriptive research)  To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else(diagnostic research)  To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables(hypothesis-testing research )

Motivation in research  desire to get a research degree along with its  consequential benefits  desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems  desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work  desire to be of service to society  desire to get respectability

Types of research 1. Descriptive Vs Analytical:  Descriptive research includes surveys and fact – finding enquiries of different kinds.  major purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.  Ex post facto research has no control over the variables, it can only report what has happened or what is happening  This Ex post facto research are used for descriptive studies  Eg: frequency of shopping, preferences of people

2.Applied Vs Fundamental  Applied research aims to finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation  E.g.. research facing a concrete social or business problem  Fundamental research is concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory  E.g. research concerning human behavior

3.Quantitative Vs Qualitative :  Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.it is applicable that can be expressed in terms of quantity.  Qualitative research aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. 4.Conceptual Vs Empirical  Conceptual research is that related to some abstract ideas or theory.  It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to interpret existing ones  Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in someway.  Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

Research problem -Is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given problem,ie. To find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the context of a given environment.

Research process Steps involved in research process 1.Define research problem 2.Extensive literature survey 3.Development of working hypotheses 4.preparing the research design 5.Determining sample design

6.Collecting the data 7.Execution of the project 8.Analysis of data 9.Hypothesis –testing 10.Generalisations and interpretation 11.Preparation of the report or the thesis

Criteria of the good research 1. Purpose of the research should be clearly defined 2.Research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement 3. Procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results 4. Researcher should report with complete frankness

5.Analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate 6.Conclusions should be confined to those data collected 7.Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced. 8.Good research is systematic 9.Good research is logical

Errors in selecting a research problem Researcher in selecting a research problem should be aware of -Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case -Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher

-Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided -Subject should be familiar and feasible -Researcher should know -Is he equipped or not? -whether the study falls in the budget or not? -whether he can get the cooperation or not?

Problems encountered by researchers in India 1. Lack of scientific training 2. Insufficient interaction between the university research departments and business establishments 3. Business units do not have the confidence on researchers 4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate information

5.Doesnot exist a code of conduct for researchers 6.Difficult of adequate and timely secretarial assistance 7.Library management and functioning is not satisfactory 8.Libraries are not able to get copies of old and new acts rules, reports and other government publications in time 9.Difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government and other agencies

Hypothesis  Decision makers often face situations wherein they are interested in testing hypotheses on the basis of available information  then take decisions on the basis of such testing  Hypotheses are capable of being objectively verified and tested.

Characteristics of hypothesis  It should be clear and precise  It should be capable of being tested  It should state relationship between variables  It should be limited in scope and must be specific  Should be consistent with most known facts  Must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation

11.19 Hypothesis Testing… Trial is an example of hypothesis testing without the statistics. – In a trial a jury must decide between two hypotheses. The null hypothesis is H 0 : The defendant is innocent – The alternative hypothesis or research hypothesis is H 1 : The defendant is guilty The jury does not know which hypothesis is true. They must make a decision on the basis of evidence presented.

Basic concepts of hypothesis a)Null Hypothesis and alternative hypothesis b)Two possible errors c)Level of significance d)Two –tailed and One tailed tests

a)Null Hypothesis and alternative hypothesis: While comparing method A and method B, if we proceed with the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as Null Hypothesis. As against this when A is superior than B, then this is termed as alternative hypothesis

 rejecting the null hypothesis is in favor of the alternative hypothesis. (i.e., there is enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis).  “We accept the null hypothesis” If there is not enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis.

11.23 b)Two possible errors: while making decision two errors may occur. Type I error(alpha) occurs when we reject a true null hypothesis. Type II error (beta) occurs when we accept a false null hypothesis. Decision Accept HoReject Ho Ho(true)Correct DecisionType I error (alpha) Ho (false)Type II error (beta) Correct Decision

11.24 The probability of a Type I error is denoted as α (Greek letter alpha). The probability of a type II error is β (Greek letter beta). The two probabilities are inversely related. Decreasing one increases the other, for a fixed sample size. In other words, you can’t have  and β both real small for any old sample size. You may have to take a much larger sample size, or in the court example, you need much more evidence.

Methods of writing,reporting literature