1. How to Research
Lynn W Zimmerman, PhD

2. Preparation Research – creative scientific endeavor
Relationship between the development of research questions and the execution of the research itself.
Good preparation is key.

3. Key Concepts of the Scientific Method
General questions
Narrow down to focus on one specific aspect.
Design a research project to observe and analyze this aspect.
Conclude and generalize to the real world.

4. Theory
an idea or set of ideas that is intended to explain facts or events
the general principles or ideas that relate to a particular subject
an idea that is suggested or presented as possibly true but that is not known or proven to be true

5. Phases of Research Preparation
Preparation - an evolutionary process consisting of phases
Cyclical
Each phase is a narrower, more focused vision of the preceding step.
 Creativity needed to conceptualize how to create the right foundation for the project

6. Designing a Research Project
Formulate and define a research problem
Focus the research process so that they can draw conclusions reflecting the real world in the best possible way
Develop a research hypothesis as a way to explain a phenomenon which they have observed.
The observed phenomenon has provoked curiosity and evokes questions.

7. Phase 1: The general question
Experience and interests
Other research in your field
Sources outside your field

8. Generating the General Question
Observation: Learners acquire language at different rates.
What are some questions this observation may raise?
Are these differences due to characteristics of the learners or the teacher?
Are they due to some as aspect of the material or strategies used?
Why does this research need to be done?
General question: Why do learners of a second language progress at different rates?

9. Phase 2: Focusing the question
Important and feasible?
Feasible – possible to do easily or conveniently
Questions to check for feasibility:
How will the answer to the general question be found? Experiment? Survey questionnaire? Test?
Does the researcher have the knowledge and expertise needed to conduct the research?
Are the terms and concepts used in the general question defined clearly and consistently?
Logistics and practical problems
Is there access to enough participants?
Who will collect the data?
Is training some assistants necessary?
If it will be a computer analysis, is there knowledge how to use the software, and computer access and time available?

10. The Research Question the focus of the research
“asks, explicitly or implicitly, either what or why.” (p. 8)
Answers to research questions should be based on research – not just on the educated guess or opinion of an expert

11. Good Research Questions
Focuses on only 2 or 3 variables
Is defined with respect to current knowledge
Can be investigated within available time/resources/ ethical constraints
Can use comparative terms (e.g. "faster", "higher", "improved")
Must use clear concepts
Include cause and effect relationships

12. Your Turn Compare the two. Which is the better research question? Why?
Are some English teachers better than others?
Do beginning-level students of English whose teachers uses direct teaching strategies score higher on grammar tests?

13. Phase 3: Deciding on a Research Method
Have to decide on the research method you are going to use
Is the purpose to describe or discover something or is it to test a hypothesis based on other work?
Decide on appropriate procedures
Design methods for collecting data
Crucial for what conclusions you make about a phenomenon. It affects what you can say about the cause and factors influencing it.

14. Inductive As inclusive as possible
The researcher goes into it with as few preconceived notions as possible
Rarely begins with a preconceived hypothesis
Inductive research
deciding on appropriate procedures and designing methods for collecting data

15. Deductive
Start with a preconceived prediction or a hypothesis which you want to test.
The hypothesis is usually grounded in some kind of theory which attempts to explain the behavior in question.
Deductive research
requires a clear relationship between the factors/variables chosen

16. Descriptions and Definitions
Start focusing on descriptions and definitions of the factors so that the purpose is very clearly expressed
Ask questions to clarify key terms for operational definitions
Sometimes, depending on which definition is used, outcomes and interpretations will be different
Start planning methodological issues

17. Hypothesis
an idea or theory that is not proven but that leads to further study or discussion
a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences
Hypotheses and theories are never proven – they are supported or refuted

18. Relational Hypothesis
To describe a relationship or determine if there is a relationship between variables
Directional
positive or negative change
both positive or both negative
direction of the relationship specified
Non-directional
positive or negative change not specified
Correlational
the variables occur together in some specified manner without implying that one causes the other.
Causal - a change in one variable causes a change in the other.
must be directional
direction of the change specified

19. Phase 4: Formulating the research plan or hypothesis
Confirming or rejecting a research hypothesis is always conditional since it must always be open to falsification, rejection, or revision.
New evidence may present itself or other relevant research may cast a different light on the object of research.
Research = our ‘best guess’ at a particular point in our state of knowledge

20. Research Hypothesis
Often phrased so that they are directional –make a prediction about the direction of the possible outcome of the research.
It is difficult to ‘prove’ a directional hypothesis directly
Null hypothesis
If the null hypothesis cannot be rejected at a statistically significant level, then the research hypothesis is rejected.

21. Example
H1: Learners who exhibit high levels of practice will acquire at a faster rate than those who do not.
H2: Learners who exhibit high levels of practice will acquire at a slower rate than those who do not.
H3: Learners who exhibit high levels of practice will acquire at the same rate as those who do not.
H1 and H2 –difficult to argue that a specific factor is the key factor.
H3 –easier to test. If they are not different then H1 and H2 are rejected. However, if some difference, will show difference one way or the other – supporting either H1 or H2.

22. Drawing Conclusions
Conclusions - based on several factors of the research process.
The observations that the researcher has made are often referred to as ‘empirical evidence.’
Logic and analysis leads to the conclusions.
If the research design is solid, anyone should be able to follow the same procedure and reach the same conclusions.

23. Validity and Reliability
Validity - the degree to which the research reflects the research problem; the degree to which a measurement or observational procedure accurately captures data and is used correctly
Reliability – the degree to which a data-gathering procedure produces consistent and/or replicable results

24. Generalization in Research
The extent to which the research and its conclusions apply to the real world.
Rather than stating that the results apply to the larger population, the researcher may say
This is what I found. Now I will pose new questions to see if I can find a closer relationship to what happens in the real world.
Quantitative studies
‘statistically significant results’ - the researchers think their sample is representative and that generalizations are possible.

25. References
St. Mary’s University of MN. (2014.). Qualitative vs. quantitative research. Retrieved from rials/finding/qualitative.php
Seliger, H. and Shohamy, E. (1989). Second language research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.