LEARNING THEORIES Learning Theory: To be able to summarise three broad learning theories [*Task: Association Map] Learning: ‘a relatively permanent change in thought or in behaviour that results from experience’ (Hohenstein and King, 2011: 176).

Behaviourism Observable behaviour discounts mental activities, ie unseen activities Extreme form – mind is tabula rasa Pavlov’s dogs classical conditioning – natural reflex (salivating) to stimulus (food - bell) Skinner’s (1974) operant (or behavioural) conditioning: stimulus-response-reward/punishment ie change in behaviour when response to stimulus - reinforced; response more likely next time But what about learning which occurs without reinforcement?

Piagetian theory set stages of development; child’s reality is not the same as adult’s combination of maturation and activity builds increasingly sophisticated schemata for understanding her/his experiences four stages

PIAGET’S STAGES Sensori-motor (0-2) Physical interaction here and now, ie object hidden - not there Pre-operational (2-7) Still needs concrete but beginning to internalise move from action to thinking Not yet recall or prediction Rearrangement, conservation begins but difficult Egocentric

(CONTINUED) Concrete operational (7-12) Begins to understand logical structures to explain the physical; Can construct logic 2 is less than 4, is less than 6 Classification Abstract thinking developing e.g. can do maths with equations and not simply with objects Things can change but retain original characteristics (e.g. conservation of volume in different shaped glasses) Such changes can be reversed

SECONDARY LEVEL Formal operational begins - adolescence, not everyone gets there developing conceptual structures of adulthood experienced situation - one of several possibilities can envisage worlds which do not exist Potential Criticisms: Too rigid? Younger children can deal with abstract with support Cultural and social differences

CONSTRUCTIVISM Alternative to positivism Positivism: ‘objective reality’ exists independently of perception transmission of knowledge dominates Constructivism: individual actively constructs & reconstructs reality/knowledge New info – filtered through schemata, to incorporate prior knowledge, beliefs, preconceptions, etc Fitting new info – can be integrated but, if not, not truly ‘learned’

Constructivists Piaget Dewey Bruner Vygotsky Cognitive constructivism – originates in work of Piaget: individual’s reactions to experiences lead (or not) to learning Social constructivism – in work of Vygotsky (also Bruner): language and interactions with others fundamental to construction of meaning of experiences

Vgyotskian theory Disagreed with P – maturation in itself can’t change thinking People learn by doing and by interacting with others Interaction makes use of cultural tools, e.g. language Need for challenge; also scaffolding to meet the challenge once learning complete, scaffold no longer needed Problem–solving with an other; other usually has more responsibility for the problem-solving and uses languages as tool for interaction; gradually child assumes more responsibility, and uses language (internally also) as tool ZPD: Zone of proximal development – need for challenge i +1 Encouragement/hints/reminders/suggestions Focusing

Stages 1. more capable ‘other 1.scaffolding 2.learner takes over scaffolding, e.g. talking through task 3.self-guidance reduces 4.becomes automatic Can revert, e.g. stressed/tired.

VARIATIONS Socio-cultural - expanding on Vygotsky Child acquires basis of what to think - and how to think - through socio-cultural interaction Whorfian hypothesis Sapir-Whorf language and culture Bernstien Socio-linguistic/socio-cultural Research on percieved failure of education for many post-WW2

Various principles Begin with content likely to be familiar New material – presented in ‘real’ context, rather than in the abstract Material should not require Ss to alter schemata abruptly (eg not outside ZPD) Ss need to revisit concepts (spiral curriculum) Ss should move towards independence, by extrapolating, filling the gaps Ss should work together [= inductive learning]