1. Psychological theories of learning and instruction

2. What do you bring to this session?
What psychological theories have you been introduced to?
In teaching training?
Since then?
How are these theories relevant to your practice?
Can you give any concrete examples of application of theory?

3. Purposes
To introduce some behavioural, cognitive, constructivist and socio-cultural ideas about learning
To consider the contributions of Pavlov, Skinner, Piaget, Vygotsky and others in developing these ideas
To describe some applications of these learning ‘theories’
To consider the relationship between and implication of theories of learning for theories of instruction

4. What is a theory? everyday use academic use scientific use
A conjecture, an opinion, or a speculation
academic use
The body of rules, ideas, principles, and techniques that applies to a particular subject
scientific use
a theory is a mathematical or logical explanation, or a testable model of the manner of interaction of a set of natural phenomena, capable of predicting future occurrences or observations of the same kind, and capable of being tested through experiment or through empirical observation

5. What is a ‘learning theory’?
In psychology and education, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning
How can we make sense of the fact that there are so many?

6. Learning theory - Orientations
Behaviourist – observable changes in behaviour
Cognitivist – internal mental processes
Humanist – personal actions to fulfil potential
Social and situational – interaction and observation in social context

7. Behaviourism

8. A behaviourist definition of learning
“Learning is any more or less permanent change in behaviour which is the result of experience.”

9. Notable behaviourists
Ivan Pavlov - ‘Classical conditioning’

12. Notable behaviourists
B Frederic Skinner – ‘Operant conditioning’
A conditioned response is reinforced by a succeeding stimulus
Responses to a stimulus can be learned according to the reinforcement given
‘Law of positive reinforcement’

13. Kinds of reinforcement and punishment (Woolfolk, 2008)

14. Evaluating and Using Behaviourist Approaches
What are the strengths of this sort of approach to learning?
What are its limitations?
Are there any ways in which conditioning or other aspects of behaviourism are to be found in educational practice today?

15. So, are you a cognitivist?

16. Cognitivism
Ideas started in 1920s when problems revealed with applying behaviourist approaches (rats and children not behaving as they should!)
Reaction to ‘black box’ view of the learner’s mind
Input
Processing
Output

17. Cognitivism
Shift from viewing learners and behaviours as products of environmental stimuli to viewing learners as actively constructing meaning and knowledge from stimuli and experience … extending and transforming the knowledge they already have

18. A cognitivist definition of learning
“Cognitivist theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganisation of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information.”

19. Jean Piaget Learning as an active process of constructing knowledge
Development of ‘schemata’ – internal knowledge structures
Assimilation – accommodation - equilibriation
Theory of cognitive development

20. Stage theory

21. Piaget’s influence ‘Child-centred’ learning
Curriculum development projects linked to stage theory
Cognitive acceleration

22. Lev Vygotsky
Emphasised the social dimension of learning and therefore the role of language in mediating learning
Recognised the importance of the ‘teacher’ whether in the form of an adult or peer (the more capable/knowledgeable ‘other’)
Importance of scaffolding

23. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
“the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.”

24. Piaget vs Vygotsky?

25. Constructivism Linked to cognitivist ideas about learning
(i.e. the learner constructs his or her own reality not just memorises the right answers)
“Starting from where the learners are”
New experiences need to be reconciled with existing ideas

26. Variants of constructivism
Individual constructivism
(Piagetian)
Social constructivism
(Vygotskian)
Radical constructivism
(von Glaserfeld)

27. Characteristics of personal constructivism
Learners are active in the process of learning and have a responsibility for their own learning
Individual construction of meaning often involves interpersonal negotiation
Knowledge is not objectified but personal
Learners bring their own ideas (alternative frameworks) to learning situations which may be implicit/tacit but must be taken seriously
Long term learning requires reconciliation of existing ideas with new experiences

28. Characteristics of social constructivism
Emphasis on the importance of learning in groups through social interaction
Emphasis on the role of language in learning
Focus on quantity and quality of language particularly ‘dialogue’ (structured exchanges between teachers and learners or between learners)
Development into socio-cultural perspectives on learning

29. Radical Constructivism
A post-modern perspective
An individual’s response to his or her experience is set above what objectively might happen
Notions of emancipation and empowerment built into this view
Reconstruction is a political activity challenging existing power structures.

30. What about Theories of Instruction?
By themselves, theories of learning do not offer prescriptions for teaching
They may or may not have clear implications for the structure of process of teaching or instruction
Theories of instruction need to be developed from preceding theories of learning

31. Directed instruction Grounded in behaviourist ideas about learning
Combined with Information-Processing (cognitivist) models

32. Robert Gagné’s nine ‘events of instruction’
Gaining attention
Informing the learner of the objective
Stimulating recall of pre-requisite learning
Presenting new material
Providing learning guidance
Eliciting performance
Providing feedback about correctness
Assessing performance
Enhancing retention and recall

33. Characterising a theory of instruction (Jerome Bruner)
Creating a predisposition towards learning
Devising ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner
Deciding on the most effective sequences in which to present material
Considering the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments