State reform and reform movements, late 19 th century Middle East Why and how did the Ottoman Empire instigate state reforms in the 19 th century? What were the challenges facing state and society in the 19 th century? How did states and people respond to these challenges? Osman III – one of earliest sultans

What was the central question facing Middle Eastern elites, thinkers and politicians? How has the West come to dominate us politically, economically and even (to an extent) culturally? And secondly, what is to be done about this?

Why did the Ottoman Empire instigate reforms? Tensions between the center and provincial leaders economic encroachments by the Europeans military defeats Istanbul - Mosque

Loss of Lands

What were the challenges facing state and society? Technology and science “modernizing” how to reconcile change with tradition different reformist agendas the threat from (and promise of) the West A Janissary (Ottoman soldier)

How Did State And Society Respond? Early Reforms Selim III (r ) –Nizam-i jedid –Embassies in Europe Mahmud II ( ) –End of Jannisaries –Reforms in bureaucracy –Medical and military schools –Fez and frock, etc. Selim III (r )

How Did State And Society Respond? The Tanzimat ( ) Equality of subjects –Hatt-i Sharif of Gülhane –Hatt-i Hümayan Strengthening of Ottoman consciousness –Nationality Law (1869) State schools and education Creation of a modern government Military conscription Land reform (1858) Abolition of tax farming (iltizam)

Other responses: Young Ottomans Who were they? What was their program? What were some of the influences that affected their ideas? Their form of patriotism; patrie

The Constitution of 1876 Chamber of deputies role of the sultan (Abdul Hamid II, ) dissolution (1878) Sultan Abdul Hamid II

Other problems: relations with the West Debt; Public Debt Administration (1881) the “Eastern question” European interests: –Russia –Habsburgs (Austria) –French –British Crimean War ( ) Treaty of Paris (1856) Congress of Berlin (1878) Suez Canal – 19 th c.?

Egypt in the reform era Muhammad `Ali ( ) School of Languages, 1835 Isma`il ( ) Economic infrastructure: railroad (1852); Suez Canal ( ) Dar al-Ulum, 1872 Mixed Courts, 1876 Egyptian reformers: Rifa`a Tahtawi ( ) Muhammad Abduh ( )

Islamic reform and reformers: Abduh Abduh: how to reconcile claims of divine revelation with those of reason, or those of Islamic law with those of modern law springing from other principles\ his answer: –religion and reason were compatible – there was no contradiction between religion and science –advocated reform from within –though problem came from degeneration of Islam and “blind imitation” of older traditions –argued for reinterpretation of Islam through national, education, legal and social reforms –Muslims could selectively appropriate from the West –as historical conditions warranted, core of Islamic principles and values should be reapplied to new realities and old traditions, where necessary, could be discarded

The Arab Provinces – 19 th century Disturbances of 1860 Situation in Lebanon (mutasarrifiyyah) Sectarianism “politics of notables ” Beirut 19 th c. engraving