1 4. Consonants  Consonants are produced ‘ by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction ’.  By contrast, a vowel is produced without such ‘ stricture ’ so that ‘ air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose ’.

2  The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.  As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.

3  In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved.  For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.  The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors.

4  The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished:  the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period;  they may narrow the space considerably; or  they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.

5 Manner of articulation  Stop (or Plosive) __ Oral & Nasal  Fricative  (Median) Approximant  Lateral (Approximant)  Trill  Tap or Flap  Affricate

6  The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.  Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.  Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart:

7  Bilabial  Labiodental  Dental  Alveolar  postalveolar  Retroflex  Palatal  Velar  Uvular  Pharyngeal  Glottal Place of articulation

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9 English consonants  Received Pronunciation (RP)  General American (GA)  English consonants

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11 Description of English consonants  [p] voiceless bilabial stop/plosive  [b] voiced bilabial stop/plosive  [s]voiceless alveolar fricative  [z]voiced alveolar fricative