Motivation in Organizations Chapter 7: 205-222 Organizational Behavior 261 Gabrielle Durepos

Outline Towards an understanding of motivation Intrinsic versus Extrinsic motivation Early theories of motivation Hedonism Taylor’s Scientific Management and Motivation Mayo and the Hawthorn Studies Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory Conclusions

Towards an Understanding of Motivation Work motivation is understood as: An individual’s desire to direct and sustain energy in performing a task Most described as an internal desire “to move” Individual motivation is related to an individual’s characteristics i.e. self-efficacy, locus of control, ability There are many theories of motivation There is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ theory of motivation OB theories of motivation draw on psychology literature Psychological literature defines motivation as: An internal process that acts in governing / guiding choices and maintaining behavior or voluntary activity over time

Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation Refers to an influence to the motivation level from external sources Traditionally viewed as negative “oh… you are only doing that so you can get something out of it…” Limited effectiveness, short term duration Has been shown to negatively affect intrinsic motivation Examples – praise, salary, status, bonus Intrinsic Motivation Refers to an influence to the motivation level from internal sources Traditionally viewed as positive “I am doing this cause I want to do it…” Examples – excitement about a work challenge, pride in making a difference, personal development & growth that comes from learning a new task

Early Theories of Motivation: Hedonism Refers to the belief that we actively seek out pleasure and try to avoid pain Hedonism assumes that humans have “choice” Assumes humans are rational in their thought process Became known as the “carrot” and “stick” approach http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=motivation+and+leadership&emb=0&aq=f#q=mo tivation%20and%20rewards%20in%20organisation&emb=0 Most theories of motivation are based on the concept of hedonism

Taylor is concerned with inefficiency at work due to: Early Theories of Motivation: Taylor’s Scientific Management and Motivation Taylor is concerned with inefficiency at work due to: Attitude of workers, methods of work & system of management control  One way he redressed this was by introducing a system of motivation Taylor assumes the worker as: Lazy Concerned only with financial rewards Having a drive to work hard ONLY if rewarded financially, i.e. a piece rate system This theory is based on extrinsic motivation Later studies (human relations school) show that money is not the sole motivator at work

Early Theories of Motivation: Mayo & the Hawthorn Studies Mayo & The Human Relations School: Believed that money is NOT the sole motivator for hard work Humans are motivated by the social relationships they have with other humans at work Work is a key place where humans socialize The study of human relationships at work is still prominent today This theory is based on extrinsic motivation

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Contemporary theories of motivation are more sophisticated They account for many factors in the study of motivation & complexity of human behavior Have been classified as: Content Theories (Needs Theories) All people strive to fulfill certain needs Look at the “content” of those needs – what are the needs that people are seeking to fulfill? Are they safety needs, self esteem needs, self actualization needs? Looks at the “what” Process Theories Refer to the actual process by which individuals are motivated What mental processes do people use to inform what they will do? How are people motivated at work? Do they compare themselves with others to gauge their work efforts? Do they feel that the effort they “put in” will mirror what they “get out”? Looks at the “how”

Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs All humans have needs which they are motivated to fulfill Focus on psychological wellness Human needs exist in a hierarchically structured form Lower level needs must be met before higher level needs can be met Those at the top (growth needs) are intrinsically motivated. Those at the bottom (basic needs) are extrinsically motivated As lower level needs are satisfied, they no longer primarily drive behavior & higher needs become motivating

Individual needs not always clustered around these categories Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: Criticisms of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Seen as too rigid Individual needs not always clustered around these categories Satisfying one level of needs does not always lead to the next level of motivation described Some individuals may satisfy their needs in a different order Little empirical research supporting the theory Difficult to test empirically Doesn’t explain how to motivate people Specifically in low paying jobs beyond the lower level needs

Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory This is a “needs theory” based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Alderfer outlines three areas of needs Existence (akin to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs) Relatedness (akin to Maslow’s social needs) Growth (akin to Maslow’s self-esteem and self-actualization needs) The three levels of needs are: Not mutually exclusive Always present Progression from one level to the next: Individuals move freely between various types of needs; so existence needs to not have to be met prior to relatedness needs More suited to explain complexity of human life than a linear model Criticism Research has not validated Alderfer’s ERG theory

McGregor believes that there are two theories of employee- management: Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Borrows heavily from Maslow in its emphasis on understanding human needs McGregor believes that there are two theories of employee- management: Theory X – Managers view employees as: Lazy, only work hard if monitored closely Akin to Maslow’s lower level needs Extrinsically motivated Theory Y – Managers view employees as: Wanting to work hard, can be autonomous, valued strategic resources Akin to Maslow’s upper level needs Intrinsically motivated Theory Y is sometimes difficult to support Due to difficult financial times

Theory of needs that divides needs into two distinct categories: Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory Theory of needs that divides needs into two distinct categories: Motivators Have an effect on level of motivation Are intrinsic to the individual Examples: the challenge of work provided, the importance of one’s contributions, achievement of personal growth Hygiene Do not have an effect on level of motivation If not present, these have an effect on work dissatisfaction Are extrinsic to the individual Examples: work environment, characteristics of the supervisor, salary Research on this theory has mixed results Some researchers support it

Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory Develops a “needs theory” where needs are Learned from society – people develop needs through socialization Needs can be taught Are not inherent – people are not born with certain needs McClelland notes that there are three areas of needs  Need for Power Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation Research has shown that: “need for achievement” can be a good predictor of job performance when coupled with a supportive work environment Managers with a high need for power and high discipline make the best motivators Criticism - can a “need for achievement” be learned!?

Conclusions Work motivation is understood as: The individual’s desire to direct and sustain energy towards performing a task Most describe an internal desire “to move” Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic There are many theories of motivation There is not one best theory of motivation Some theories are better suited for certain situations Human behavior is very complex Can not assume that applying one theory of motivation will enable us to fully understand the process of motivation