Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion

Motivation: Why do we do the things we do? Dynamics of behavior that initiate, sustain, direct, and terminate actions What makes us start, persist, focus on, and stop what we do?

Types of Motives Primary (or Biological) Motive: Innate (inborn) motives based on biological needs we must meet to survive Stimulus Motive: Innate needs for stimulation and information (but not necessary for survival) Secondary (or Learned) Motive: Based on learned needs, drives, and goals

A Model of Motivational Activities Model of how motivated activities work Need: Internal deficiency; causes Drive: Energized motivational state (e.g., hunger, thirst); activates a… Response: Action or series of actions designed to attain a… Goal: Target of motivated behavior Incentive Value: Goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need

Hunger: Big Mac Attack? Homeostasis: Body equilibrium; balance Hypothalamus: Brain structure; regulates many aspects of motivation and emotion, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior Lateral Hypothalamus: If turned on, an animal will begin eating; if destroyed, an animal will never eat again! Ventromedial Hypothalamus: Stops eating behavior

Figure 9.2 FIGURE 9.2 In Walter Cannon’s early study of hunger, a simple apparatus was used to simultaneously record hunger pangs and stomach contractions.

FIGURE 9.3 Location of the hypothalamus in the human brain.

Figure 9.4 FIGURE 9.4 This is a cross section through the middle of the brain (viewed from the front of the brain). Indicated areas of the hypothalamus are associated with hunger and the regulation of body weight.

More on Eating Behavior (Hungry Yet?) Neuropeptide Y (NPY): Substance in the brain that initiates eating Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1): Substance in brain that terminates eating Set Point: Proportion of body fat that is maintained by changes in hunger and eating; point where weight stays the same when you make no effort to gain or lose weight

The Final Word on Eating Behavior Leptin: Substance released by fat cells that inhibits eating External Eating Cues: External stimuli that tend to encourage hunger or elicit eating; these cues may cause you to eat even if you are stuffed (like Homer Simpson, who eats whatever he sees!)

Behavioral Dieting Weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits and not on temporary self-starvation Some keys Start with a complete physical Exercise Be committed to weight loss

Behavioral Dieting (cont'd) Observe yourself, keep an eating diary, and keep a chart of daily progress. Eat based on hunger, not on taste or learned habits that tell you to always clean your plate. Avoid snacks. Reward yourself if you change eating habits and punish yourself if you do not.

Taste Taste Aversion: Active dislike for a particular food VERY difficult to overcome

Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological origins Control issues seem to be involved Very difficult to effectively treat Affects adolescent females overwhelmingly

Figure 9.6 FIGURE 9.6 Women with abnormal eating habits were asked to rate their body shape on a scale similar to the one you see here. As a group, they chose ideal figure is much thinner than what they thought their current weights were. (Most women say they want to be thinner than they currently are, but to a lesser degree than women with eating problems.) Notice that women with eating problems chose an ideal weight that was even thinner than what they thought men prefer. This is not typical of most women. Only women with eating problems wanted to be thinner than what they thought men find attractive

Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa (Binge-Purge Syndrome) Excessive eating usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives Difficult to treat Prozac approved by FDA to treat bulimia nervosa Affects females overwhelmingly

Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa Anorectics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of becoming fat; they think they are fat when the opposite is true! Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight; anorectics with perfect control. Anorectics will often be put on a “weight-gain” diet to restore weight.

Thirst and Pain Extracellular Thirst: When water is lost from fluids surrounding the cells of the body Intracellular Thirst: When fluid is drawn out of cells because of increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell Best satisfied by drinking water Pain Avoidance: An episodic drive Distinct episodes when bodily damage takes place or is about to occur

Sex Drive Estrus: Changes in animals that create a desire for sex; females in heat Estrogen: A female sex hormone Androgens: Male hormones

Figure 9.7 FIGURE 9.7 These graphs show the frequency of sexual intercourse for American adults. To generalize, about one third of the people surveyed have sex twice a week or more, one third a few times a month, and one third a few times a year or not at all. The overall average is about once a week

Sexual Behavior and Orientation Erogenous Zones: Areas of the body that produce pleasure and/or provoke erotic desires (genitals, breasts, etc.) Sexual Orientation: Degree of emotional and erotic attraction to members of the same sex, opposite sex, or both sexes Heterosexual: Attracted romantically and erotically to the opposite sex Homosexual: Attracted romantically and erotically to the same sex Bisexual: Attracted romantically and erotically to both sexes

Human Sexual Response: Masters and Johnson Sexual response can be divided into four phases that occur in the following order: Excitement: Initial signs of sexual arousal Plateau: Physical arousal intensifies Orgasm: Climax and release of sexual tension Resolution: Return to lower levels of sexual tension and arousal

Arousal: The need for stimulation

Stimulus Drives Reflect needs for information, exploration, manipulation, and sensory input Sensation Seeking: Trait of people who prefer high levels of stimulation (e.g., the contestants on “Fear Factor”) Yerkes-Dodson Law: If a task is simple, it is best for arousal to be in the middle; if the task is complex, lower levels of arousal provide for the best performance

Figure 9.11 FIGURE 9.11 (a) The general relationship between arousal and efficiency can be described by an inverted U curve. The optimal level of arousal or motivation is higher for a simple task (b) than for a complex task (c).

How to Cope With Test Anxiety Preparation Relaxation Rehearsal Restructuring thoughts

Circadian Rhythms Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal levels that vary on a 24-hour schedule Preadaptation: Gradual matching of sleep-waking cycles to a new time schedule before an anticipated circadian rhythm change (e.g., trying to adjust to new time zone to avoid jet lag)

Figure 9.12 FIGURE 9.12 Core body temperature follows a circadian rhythm. Most people reach a low point 2 to 3 hours before the time they normally wake u Page It’s no wonder that both the Chernobyl and Three-Mile Island nuclear power plant accidents occurred around 4 A.M. Rapid travel to a different time zone, shift work, depression, and illness can disrupt the body’s core rhythm, with disturbing effects

Figure 9.13 FIGURE 9.13 Time required to adjust to air travel across six time zones. The average time to resynchronize was shorter for westbound travel than for eastbound flights.

Learned Motives Social Motives: Acquired by growing up in a particular society or culture Need for Achievement (nAch): Desire to meet some internal standard of excellence Need for Power: Desire to have impact or control over others People tend to describe this in themselves in terms of the extrinsic motivation involved – the attainment of rewards. There is also an intrinsic need for achievement, the accomplishment of goals for their own sake.

Measure Your Own Need for Achievement We’ll use two measures Caution—be aware of the social desirability response bias Use meta-cognitive skills—”Do I honestly feel this way or am I just trying to look good?” ***Test your own need for achievement –Huffman p. 447 Test 1—on Elmo camera Before you begin, beware of the social desirability response bias—People’s tendency to act in ways that they believe others will approve of (Rosenberg, 1969). Given our strong cultural emphasis on independence and achievement, most people’s responses to the following tests might reflect not only their appraisal of their achievement needs, but also a tendency to say good things about themselves. Researchers are constantly on guard against social desirability biases contaminating their measurements. However, when taking and scoring your own tests, there are few safeguards against this response bias. Thus, you must rely on critical thinking skills. As you take these tests, use meta-cognition (thinking about your won thoughts) to monitor your responses. Ask yourself “Do I honestly feel this way, or am I just trying to look good?” Critical thinking helps us overcome our personal biases and self-deceptive reasoning…Using metacognition will result in a more accurate measurement of your need for achievement. Take both Test 1 and Test 2. Then score both tests. See Huffman p. 393

Scoring Test 1 Test 2 Count the number of “yes” responses The more “yes” responses, the higher your need for achievement Test 2 Give yourself a point each time any of the following is mentioned: Defining a problem Solving a problem Obstructions to solving a problem Techniques that can help overcome the problem Anticipation of success or resolution of the problem

Achievement Motivation Characteristics of those high in need for achievement moderate risk takers Avoid goals that are too easy or too hard Complete difficult tasks Earn better grades Tend to excel in chosen occupations Attribute success to ability; failure to insufficient effort More likely to renew efforts when they perform poorly Can you think of some disadvantages of a direct, objective test like this?

Measuring the Need for Achievement TAT Measuring the need for achievement is complex and difficult to do. It involves looking at not only how much, but also why some people achieve more than others. A projective personality test, the Thematic Apperception Test or TAT, has been used for this purpose. TAT The stories that people make up in response to the pictures in the test are analyzed for themes related to achievement motivation. It is a moderately useful procedure, although the need for achievement and actual achievement both correlate with IQ scores too, so IQ predicts actual achievement just as well as the TAT does.

TAT—Thematic Apperception Test Developed by Henry Murray, personality theorist Projective device consisting of 20 drawings (black and white) of various situations People must make up stories about the people in it Central themes are examined and interpreted Good at revealing feelings about a person’s social relationships Disadvantages?

Abraham Maslow and Needs Hierarchy of Human Needs: Maslow’s ordering of needs based on presumed strength or potency; some needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence your behavior to a greater degree Basic Needs: First four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy Lower needs tend to be more potent than higher needs Growth Needs: Higher-level needs associated with self-actualization

Figure 9.14 FIGURE 9.14 Maslow believed that lower needs in the hierarchy are dominant. Basic needs must be satisfied before growth motives are fully expressed. Desires for selfactualization are reflected in various metaneeds (see text).

Types of Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation coming from within, not from external rewards; based on personal enjoyment of a task Extrinsic Motivation: Based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors (e.g., pay, grades)

Emotions State characterized by physiological arousal and changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings Physiological Changes: Include heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other involuntary bodily responses Emotional Expression: Outward signs of what a person is feeling Emotional Feelings: Private emotional experience

Plutchik’s First Four Primary Emotions Most basic emotions are: Fear Surprise Sadness Disgust

Plutchik’s Last Four Primary Emotions (cont'd) Anger Anticipation Joy Acceptance

Figure 9.15 FIGURE 9.15 Primary and mixed emotions. In Robert Plutchik’s model, there are eight primary emotions, as listed in the inner areas. Adjacent emotions may combine to give the emotions listed around the perimeter. Mixtures involving more widely separated emotions are also possible. For example, fear plus anticipation produces anxiety.

Figure 9.16 FIGURE 9.16 Folklore holds that people who work or attend school on a weekly schedule experience their lowest moods on “Blue Monday.” Actually, moods tend to be generally lower for most weekdays than they are on weekends. The graph shown here plots the average daily moods of a group of college students over a 5-week period. As you can see, many people find that their moods rise and fall on a 7-day cycle. For most students, a low point tends to occur around Monday or Tuesday and a peak on Friday or Saturday.

Brain and Emotion Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Neural system that connects brain with internal organs and glands Sympathetic Branch: Part of ANS that activates body for emergency action Parasympathetic Branch: Part of ANS that quiets body and conserves energy

The Role of the Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic nervous system is the division that controls the functioning of the internal organs. The ANS has two subdivisions, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is comprised of two chains of neuron clusters just to the left and right of the spinal cord. It increases the heart rate, breathing rate, production of sweat, and flow of adrenaline. It prepares the body for intense activity, “fight or flight” and other stress-related behaviors. It is the “crisis management” center. The parasympathetic nervous system consists of neurons with axons extending out from the medulla and the lower spinal cord. These axons connect to neuron clusters near the internal organs. The parasympathetic nervous system is the long-term survival center, promoting rest by decreasing heart rate, digestion, and other functions that keep an organism alive in the long-term. Figure 12.2 The autonomic nervous system consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which sometimes act in opposing ways and sometimes cooperate. The sympathetic nervous system readies the body for emergency action; the parasympathetic nervous system supports digestive and other nonemergency functions.

Figure 12.4 PARASYMPATHETIC REBOUND The Two Divisions of the ANS Both systems are active, and the shifting between the two systems helps to keep the body in a balanced condition called homeostasis. Emergencies mainly activate the sympathetic nervous system, but also may involve some parasympathetic activity (i.e., being frightened causes an individual to lose bowel or bladder control.) We generally cannot directly control autonomic responses, but we can influence them by voluntary cognition and behavior, for example, athletes learn to control breathing and focus their concentration for improved aim. Figure 12.4 PARASYMPATHETIC REBOUND After the stimulus eliciting the sympathetic response is removed, that response is reduced, and the opposing parasympathetic response is enhanced. This is why people sometimes feel faint at the end of an exciting experience.

Sudden Death After strong emotional shock, sympathetic system becomes too active Results in excessive stress Parasympathetic Rebound After shock, parasympathetic system overreacts lowers blood pressure too much Slows heart to a stop

Lie Detectors Polygraph: Device that records heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response (GSR); lie detector GSR: Measures sweating Irrelevant Questions: Neutral, unemotional questions in a polygraph test Relevant Questions: Questions to which only someone guilty should react by becoming anxious or emotional Control Questions: Questions that almost always provoke anxiety in a polygraph (e.g. “Have you ever taken any office supplies?”)

Figure 12.7b The polygraph, a method for detecting nervous arousal, is the basis for the so-called “lie detector” test. The polygraph operator (a) asks a series of nonthreatening questions to establish base-line readings of the subject’s autonomic responses (b), then asks questions relevant to an investigation. The underlying assumption is that an increase in arousal indicates nervousness, which in turn indicates lying. Unfortunately, a large percentage of innocent people become nervous and therefore appear to be lying.

Body Language (Kinesics) Study of communication through body movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions Facial Blends: Mix of two or more basic expressions

Three Types of Facial Expressions Pleasantness-Unpleasantness: Degree to which a person is experiencing pleasure or displeasure Attention-Rejection: Degree of attention given to a person or object Activation: Degree of arousal a person is experiencing

Figure 9.19 FIGURE 9.19 When shown groups of simplified faces (without labels), the angry and scheming faces “jumped out” at people faster than sad, happy, or neutral faces. An ability to rapidly detect threatening expressions probably helped our ancestors survive.

Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory: Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of such arousal. Cannon-Bard Theory: The thalamus (in brain) causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal to occur at the same time. Schachter’s Cognitive Theory: Emotions occur when a label is applied to general physical arousal. Attribution: Mental process of assigning causes to events; attributing arousal to a certain source. Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Sensations from facial expressions and help define what emotion someone feels.

FIGURE 12.9 According to the James-Lange theory, physiological arousal determines the nature of an emotion. According to Schachter and Singer’s theory, physiological arousal determines the intensity of an emotion, but not which emotion is experienced.

FIGURE 9.21 Theories of emotion.

A Modern View of Emotion Each of these theories has some truth, so can we combine them in a way that makes sense?

FIGURE 9.23 A contemporary model of emotion.

Happiness Subjective Well-Being (SWB): When people are satisfied with their lives, have frequent positive emotions, and have relatively few negative emotions Are these factors related to happiness? Wealth: No relation Education: Not really Marriage: Not really Religion: Minimally

Happiness Factors (cont'd) Aging: Happiness does not decline with age. Sex: Men and women do not differ in happiness. Work: No. Personality: If you have a “sunny disposition,” you are more likely to be happy.