1. Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 12
Motivation and Emotion

2. Defining Motivation, and a Model
Dynamics of behavior that initiate, sustain, direct, and terminate actions
Model of how motivated activities work
Need: Internal deficiency; causes drive
Drive: Energized motivational state (e.g., hunger, thirst; activates a response)
Response: Action or series of actions designed to attain a goal
Goal: Target of motivated behavior

3. Types of Motives
Incentive Value: Goal’s appeal beyond its ability to fill a need
Primary Motive: Innate (inborn) motives based on biological needs that must be met to survive
Stimulus Motive: Needs for stimulation and information; appear to be innate, but not necessary for survival
Secondary Motive: Based on learned needs, drives, and goals

4. Hunger Homeostasis: Body equilibrium; balance
Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar
Hypothalamus: Brain structure; regulates many aspects of motivation and emotion, including hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
Feeding System: Area in the hypothalamus that, when stimulated, initiates eating
Satiety System: Area in the hypothalamus that terminates eating

5. Fig Needs and incentives interact to determine drive strength (above). (a) Moderate need combined with a high-incentive goal produces a strong drive. (b) Even when a strong need exists, drive strength may be moderate if a goal’s incentive value is low. It is important to remember, however, that incentive value lies “in the eye of the beholder.”

6. Fig In Cannon’s early study of hunger, a simple apparatus was used to simultaneously record hunger pangs and stomach contractions. (After Cannon, 1934.)

7. Fig. 12.3 Location of the hypothalamus in the human brain.

8. More on Eating Behavior (Hungry Yet?)
Neuropeptide Y (NPY): Substance in the brain that initiates eating
Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1): Substance in brain that terminates eating
Set Point: Proportion of body fat that is maintained by changes in hunger and eating; point where weight stays the same when you make no effort to gain or lose weight

9. Fig This is a cross section through the middle of the brain (viewed from the front of the brain). Indicated areas of the hypothalamus are associated with hunger and the regulation of body weight.

10. The Final Word on Eating Behavior
Leptin: Substance released by fat cells that inhibits eating; presently being studied for possible importance in controlling and losing weight
External Eating Cues: External stimuli that tend to encourage hunger or elicit eating; these cues may cause you to eat even if you are stuffed (like Homer Simpson, who eats whatever he sees!)

11. Behavioral Dieting
Weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits and not on temporary self-starvation
Some keys
Start with a complete physical
Exercise
Be committed to weight loss

12. Behavioral Dieting (cont.)
Observe yourself, keep an eating diary, and keep a chart of daily progress
Eat based on hunger, not on taste or learned habits that tell you to always clean your plate
Avoid snacks
Learn to weaken personal eating cues

13. Taste Taste Aversion: Active dislike for a particular food
VERY difficult to overcome
Bait Shyness: Unwillingness or hesitation by animals to eat a particular food

14. Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa
Active self-starvation or sustained loss of appetite that seems to have psychological origins
Control issues seem to be involved
Very difficult to effectively treat
Affects adolescent females overwhelmingly

15. Fig Women with abnormal eating habits were asked to rate their body shape on a scale similar to the one you see here. As a group, they chose ideal figures much thinner than what they thought their current weights were. (Most women say they want to be thinner than they currently are, but to a lesser degree than women with eating problems.) Notice that the women with eating problems chose an ideal weight that was even thinner than what they thought men prefer. This is not typical of most women. In this study, only women with eating problems wanted to be thinner than what they thought men find attractive (Zellner, Harner, & Adler, 1989).

16. Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa (Binge-Purge Syndrome)
Excessive eating usually followed by self-induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives
Difficult to treat
Prozac approved by FDA to treat bulimia nervosa
Affects females overwhelmingly

17. Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
Anorectics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of becoming fat; they think they are fat when the opposite is true!
Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight; anorectics with perfect control
Anorectics will often be put on a “weight-gain” diet to restore weight

18. CNN – Enjoying Anorexia

19. Thirst and Pain
Extracellular Thirst: When water is lost from fluids surrounding the cells of the body
Intracellular Thirst: When fluid is drawn out of cells because of increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell
Best satisfied by drinking water
Pain Avoidance: An episodic drive
Occurs in distinct episodes when bodily damage takes place or is about to occur

20. Sex Drive
Estrus: Changes in animals that create a desire for sex; females in heat
Estrogen: A female sex hormone
Androgens: Male hormones
Non-homeostatic: Independent of bodily need states

21. Stimulus Drives
Reflect needs for information, exploration, manipulation, and sensory input
Yerkes-Dodson Law: If a task is simple, it is best for arousal to be high; if it is complex, lower levels of arousal provide for the best performance
Arousal Theory: Ideal levels of activation occur for various activities
Arousal: Activation of the body and nervous system
Sensation Seeking: Trait of people who prefer high levels of stimulation (e.g., the contestants on “Eco-Challenge” and “Fear Factor”)

22. Fig. 12. 7 Monkeys happily open locks that are placed in their cage
Fig Monkeys happily open locks that are placed in their cage. Since no reward is given for this activity, it provides evidence for the existence of stimulus needs. (Photo courtesy of Harry F. Harlow.)

23. Fig (a) The general relationship between arousal and efficiency can be described by an inverted U curve. The optimal level of arousal or motivation is higher for a simple task (b) than for a complex task (c).

24. How to Cope With Test Anxiety
Preparation
Relaxation
Rehearsal
Restructuring thoughts

25. Circadian Rhythms
Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal levels that vary on a 24 hour schedule
Preadaptation: Gradual matching of sleep-waking cycles to a new time schedule before an anticipated circadian rhythm change
E.g. trying to adjust to new time zone to avoid jet lag
Melatonin: Hormone produced by pineal gland in response to light (production suppressed) and dark (production increased)

26. Fig Core body temperature is a good indicator of a person’s circadian rhythm. Most people reach a low point 2 to 3 hours before their normal waking time. It’s no wonder that both the Chernobyl and three-Mile Island nuclear power plant accidents occurred around 4 am. Rapid travel to a different time zone, shift work, depression, and illness can throw sleep and waking patterns out of synchronization with the body’s core rhythm. Mismatches of this kind are very disruptive (Hauri & Linde, 1990).

27. Jet Lag Disturbed body rhythms caused by rapid travel east or west
Major time shifts (5 hours or more) can cause very slow adaptation
Direction of travel affects adaptation, and thus, severity of jet lag
MUCH easier to go east to west than west to east
Preadaptation: Gradual matching of sleep-waking cycles to a new time schedule

28. Fig Time required to adjust to air travel across six time zones. The average time to resynchronize was shorter for westbound travel than for eastbound flights. (Data from Beljan et al., 1972; cited by Moore-Ede et al., 1982).

29. Learned Motives
Opponent Process Theory: Strong emotions tend to be followed by an opposite state; strength of both emotional states over time
Social Motives: Acquired by growing up in a particular society or culture
Need for Achievement: Desire to meet some internal standard of excellence
Need for Power: Desire to have social impact or control over others

30. Abraham Maslow and Needs
Hierarchy of Human Needs: Maslow’s ordering of needs based on presumed strength or potency; some needs are more powerful than others and thus will influence your behavior to a greater degree
Basic Needs: First four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy
Lower needs tend to be more potent (“prepotent”) than higher needs
Growth Needs: Higher-level needs associated with self-actualization
Meta-Needs: Needs associated with impulses for self-actualization

31. Fig Maslow believed that lower needs in the hierarchy are dominant. Basic needs must be satisfied before growth motives are fully expressed. Desires for self-actualization are reflected in various meta-needs.

32. Types of Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation coming from within, not from external rewards; based on personal enjoyment of a task
Extrinsic Motivation: Based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors

33. Emotions
State characterized by physiological arousal and changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings
Adaptive Behaviors: Aid our attempts to survive and adjust to changing conditions
Physiological Changes: Include heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other bodily responses

34. More Emotions
Adrenaline: Hormone produced by adrenal glands that arouses the body
Emotional Expression: Outward signs of what a person is feeling
Emotional Feelings: Private emotional experience

35. Primary Emotions and Mood
Eight primary emotions (Plutchik, 2001)
Fear
Surprise
Sadness
Disgust

36. Primary Emotions and Mood (cont.)
Anger
Anticipation
Joy
Trust
Mood: Low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state

37. Fig. 12. 13 Primary and mixed emotions
Fig Primary and mixed emotions. In Robert Plutchik’s model there are eight primary emotions, as listed in the inner areas. Adjacent emotions may combine to give the emotions listed around the perimeter. Mixtures involving more widely separated emotions are also possible. For example, fear plus anticipation produces anxiety. (Adapted from Plutchik, 2001.)

38. Brain and Emotion
Amygdala: Part of limbic system that produces fear responses
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Neural system that connects brain with internal organs and glands
Sympathetic Branch: Part of ANS that activates body for emergency action
Parasympathetic Branch: Part of ANS that quiets body and conserves energy
Parasympathetic Rebound: Overreaction to intense emotion

39. Fig An amygdala can be found buried within the temporal lobes on each side of the brain. The amygdala appears to provide “quick and dirty” processing of emotional stimuli that allows us to act involuntarily to danger.

40. CNN – Mood Chemicals

41. Lie Detectors
Polygraph: Device that records heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response (GSR); lie detector
GSR: Measures sweating
Irrelevant Questions: Neutral, nonthreatening, non-emotional questions in a polygraph test
Relevant Questions: Questions to which only someone guilty should react
Control Questions: Questions that almost always provoke anxiety in a polygraph (e.g. “Have you ever taken any office supplies?”)

42. Fig A typical polygraph includes devices for measuring heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response. Pens mounted on the top of the machine make a record of bodily responses on a moving strip of paper. (right) Changes in the area marked by the arrow indicate emotional arousal. If such responses appear when a person answers a question, he or she may be lying, but other causes of arousal are also possible.

43. Body Language (Kinesics)
Study of communication through body movement, posture, gestures, and facial expressions
Emotional Tone: Underlying emotional state
Facial Blends: Mix of two or more basic expressions

44. Three Types of Facial Expressions
Pleasantness-Unpleasantness: Degree to which a person is experiencing pleasure or displeasure
Attention-Rejection: Degree of attention given to a person or object
Activation: Degree of arousal a person is experiencing

45. Fig When shown groups of simplified faces (without labels) the angry and scheming faces “jumped out” at people faster than sad, happy, or neutral faces. An ability to rapidly detect threatening expressions probably helped our ancestors survive (adapted from Tipples, Atkinson & Young, 2002).

46. Detecting Lies
Illustrators: Gestures people use to illustrate what they are saying
Emblems: Gestures that have widely understood meanings within a particular culture

47. Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory: Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of such arousal
Cannon-Bard Theory: The thalamus (in brain) causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal at the same time
Schachter’s Cognitive Theory: Emotions occur when a label is applied to general physical arousal
Attribution: Mental process of assigning causes to events; attributing arousal to a certain source
Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Sensations from facial expressions and becoming aware of them is what leads to the emotion someone feels

48. Fig. 12.21 Theories of emotion.

49. A Modern View of Emotion
Emotional Appraisal: Evaluating personal meaning of a stimulus
Emotional Intelligence: Combination of skills, including empathy, self-control, and self-awareness; includes:
Self-awareness
Empathy
Managing, understanding, and using emotions

50. Fig. 12.23 A contemporary model of emotion.

51. Nature of Love
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love: Love is made up of intimacy, passion, and commitment
Intimacy: Affection, sharing, support, and communication in a relationship
Passion: High levels of physical arousal in a relationship, especially sexual
Commitment: Decision to love and stay with another person
Infatuation: Passion without commitment or intimacy

52. Fig. 12.24 Sternberg’s triangular theory of love.

53. Types of Love Liking: Intimacy without passion or commitment
Romantic Love: Intimacy plus passion
Fatuous Love: Passion with commitment, but lacking intimacy
Infatuation: Passion without commitment or intimacy

54. More Types of Love
Companionate Love: Intimacy and commitment without passion
Empty Love: Commitment without intimacy or passion
Consummate Love: Passion, intimacy, and commitment