Cognition Subtitle

Memory Encoding, Storing and Retrieving knowledge

Models of Memory  Information Processing (Atkinson- Shiffrin) Model  Sensory Memory: Perfect memory for brief moment  Iconic (split second) v. Echoic (3-4 seconds)  Levels of Processing Model:  Visual Encoding  Acoustic Encoding  Semantic Encoding

Types of Memory Short Term/Working Memory  Capacity: Average = 7  Must attend to information to encode in long-term memory  Chunking  Mnemonic Devices: Method of Loci, Acronyms  Rehearsal Long-term Memory  Limitless capacity  3 Formats:  Episodic  Semantic  Procedural  Explicit (Declarative) v. Implicit (non)  Prospective (remember to do something) vs. Retrospective (remember past events)

Retrieval  Recognition vs. Recall  Serial Position Effect  Primacy vs. Recency  Tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon  Semantic Network Theory: Our memories are encoded in interconnected webs.  Flashbulb Memories

Context of memory & retrieval Mood-Congruent  When I’m happy, I remember fun times. State-Dependent  If I lose my keys while I an intoxicated, I will find them when I am intoxicated

Forgetting  Hermann Ebbinghaus: Nonsense syllables  Initial forgetting is rapid, then levels off  Decay  Relearning is faster  Interference  Retroactive (new info interferes with recall of old)  Proactive (old info interferes with new)

Constructed Memory  “Recovered” memories are not always reliable  Constructed memories feel real  Elizabeth Loftus: Leading questions can create a false memory  Car “crash” v. “hit” study

Memories in the Brain  Hippocampus: Gets explicit memories from ST to LT  Damage may cause Anterograde Amnesia (can’t encode new info)  BTW: Retrograde Amnesia is the inability to remember old info  Cerebellum: Implicit memories  Long-term Potentiation: Neuronal connections are strengthened with use.

Language

Elements of Language Phonemes  Smallest unit of sound  English = 44 Morphemes  Smallest unit of meaningful sound

Syntax  The order of words to create coherent statements  Varies by language Semantics  The meaning of words

Language Acquisition  Babbling to One-Word (holophrastic) Stage to Two-Word Stage (telegraphic) to Using sentences  Misapplication of grammar rules = Overgeneralization or Overregularization (preoperational stage)

How do we acquire language? Behaviorists (think Skinner)  Through Association, Imitation and Reinforcement Language Acquisition Device (Chomsky)  We are born with capacity to learn language  Learn too quickly  Say things we weren’t taught (overgeneralization)  Critical period for learning

Language & Cognition  Linguistic Determinism (Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis): Language determines how we think  Benjamin Whorf

Thinking Organized into Concepts, Prototypes, Images

Problem Solving Algorithm  Methodical, guaranteed solution  Takes a long time Heuristic  Rule of thumb  Quick, but mistake prone  Representative vs. Availability

Impediments to Problem Solving  Overconfidence  Belief bias & Belief perseverance  Mental set (aka rigidity)  Functional Fixedness  Confirmation bias  Framing

Creativity Convergent  Thinking pointed toward one solution Divergent  Thinking that searches multiple possible answers  More creative