1. cognition

2. Resources

3. Memory Any indication that learning has persisted over time Two Models
Three Box Model of Memory
Information Processing Model

4. Three Box Model of Memory
Sensory Memory
Some memory is lost because it is not encoded
Short-Term Memory
More Memory is lost because it is not encoded
Long-Term Memory
Some information is lost due to retrieval failure

5. Three Memory Processes
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

6. Sensory Memory
Split-second holding tank, holds info less than a second
Demonstrated by George Sperling
Flashed a grid of nine letters for 1/20th of a second, participants could recall either the top, middle, or bottom rows perfectly
Tone (high, medium, or low) used as a cue as to what row to remember
Entire grid is held in memory for a split second Q L M W P X T E V

7. Sensory Memory
Iconic- visual Echoic-auditory (slightly longer- 3-4 seconds)
Most of the information is never encoded- selective attention
What we are attending to or what we consider to be important
Cocktail party phenomenon

8. Short Term/Working Memory
Everything we are currently thinking about
Fades in seconds
Capacity- Magic Number 7
Limit can be expanded with
Chunking (including mnemonic devices)
Phone numbers
Rehearsal- simple repetition

9. Long-Term Memory Permanent memory, unlimited capacity
Can decay or fade
Episodic
Memories of specific events
Semantic
General knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings, and categories
Procedural
Memories of skills and how to perform them; might be complicated to explain in words

10. Long-Term Memory Can also be:
Explicit (declarative)- conscious memories of facts or events we have actively remembered
Implicit (nondeclarative)- unintentional memories we might not even realize we have
Eidetic (photographic) memories- very rare!

11. Levels of Processing Alternate way to think about memory
Elaborately (Deeply) Processed- will likely to be remembered later, more time spent studying
Maintenance (Shallowly) Processed- will be forgotten quickly (cramming)
Explains why we remember stories better than simple repetition

12. Retrieval
Recognition- matching a current event or fact with one already in memory (multiple choice test)
Recall- retrieving a memory with an external cue

13. Retrieval
Primacy-recency effect/ serial position effect- more likely to remember the first and the last items on a list
Semantic network theory- our brain forms new memories by connecting them to memories already present

14. Retrieval Flashbulb memories- encode the context of an effect
Mood congruent memory recall better when mood is the same

15. Elements of language
Phonemes- smallest units of sound in a language (English-44)
Ph, sh, a, l
Morpheme- smallest units of meaningful sound
Ing, -s, anti-
Syntax- specific order in which words are written and spoken
Each language has its own syntax

16. Retrieval
State-dependent memory- more likely to remember when in same state of consciousness
Alcohol and Drugs
Constructive memories- may report false details that never occurred
Elizabeth Loftus
Leading questions can easily influence us

17. Forgetting
Relearning effect- relearning forgotten information is quicker the second time around
languages
Proactive interference- learning new information interferes when recalling old information
Retroactive interference- older information learned previously interferes with the recall of information learned more recently

18. Language Acquisition Beginning at 3 to 4 months
Babbling Stage-
Beginning at 3 to 4 months
Spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
One-Word Stage
from about age 1 to 2
speaks mostly in single words
Sometimes called holophrastic
Two-Word Stage-
beginning about age 2
speaks mostly two-word statements
Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram – “go car”
uses mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words
Also overgeneralizes

19. Language Acquisition Skinner- Operant Conditioning
Association, imitation, and reinforcement
Noam Chomsky- Inborn Universal Grammar
Language Acquisition Device
Acquire grammar and language without being taught
Over-generalizing
Linguistic Relativity
Whorfs hypothesis that language determines the way we think
Supported by few studies- labeling has more of an impact

20. Describing Thoughts Concept Prototype Image
mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people
Address- country, city, street, house
Prototype
the best example of a category
matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin.)
Image
Mental picture we create in our minds of the outside world

21. Problem solving Algorithm Heuristic
methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristic
rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
usually speedier than algorithms
more error-prone than algorithms
sometimes we’re unaware of using heuristics

22. Problem solving Availability Heuristic- Representativeness Heuristic-
judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially
Representativeness Heuristic-
judging a situation based on how similar aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind
A young person is more likely to commit suicide
An old person is more likely to be a poor driver

23. Problem solving Overconfidence Belief Bias Belief Perseverance
tendency to be more confident than correct
Belief Bias
the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
Belief Perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

24. Problem Solving Framing Functional Fixedness Confirmation Bias
tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
Confirmation Bias
tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions
Framing
the way an issue is posed

25. Practice questions
1) Mr. Krohn, a carpenter is frustrated because he misplaced is hammer and needs to pound in the last nail in the bookcase he is building. He overlooks the fact that he could huse the tennis trophy sitting above the workbench to pound in the nail. Which concept best explains why Mr. Krohn overlooked the trophy?
Representativeness heuristic
Retrieval
Functional fixedness
Belief bias
Divergent thinking

26. 2)Which of the following is an example of the use of the representativeness heuristic?
A) Judging that a young person is more likely to be the instigator of an argument than an older person, because you believe that younger people are more likely to start fights
Breaking a math story problem down into smaller, representative parts, in order to solve it
Judging a situation by a rule that is usually, but not always, true
Solving a problem with a rule that guarantees the right, more representative answer
Making a judgment according to past experiences that are most easily recalled, therefore representative of experience

27. 3) Which sentence most accurately describes sensory memory?
Sensory memory stores all memory input perfectly accurately for a short period of time
Sensory memory encodes only sensations we are attending to at the time
Sensory memory records all incoming sensations and remembers them indefinitely
Sensory memory receives memories from the working memory and decides which memories to encode in long-term memory
Sensory memory records some sensations accurately, but some are recorded incorrectly, leading to constructive memory

28. 4) Which of the following would be the best piece of evidence for the nativist theory of language acquisition?
A child who acquires language at an extremely early age through intense instruction by his/her parents
Statistical evidence that children in one culture learn language faster than children in another culture
A child of normal mental ability not being able to learn language due to language deprivation at an early age
A child skipping the babbling and telegraphic speech stages of language acquisition
A child deprived of language at an early age successfully learning language later

29. 5) Recall is more difficult than recognition because
Memories retrieved by recognition are held in working memory, and recalled memories are in long-term memory
Memories retrieved by recognition are more deeply processed
The process of recall involves cues to the memory that causes interference
Memories retrieved by recognition are more recent than memories retrieved be recall
The process of recognition involves matching a person, event, or object with something already in memory