1. Memory
Memory - the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Example – Flashbulb Memory of 9/11

2. The Memory Process Three step process….
Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.
Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

3. Information Processing Model of Memory
Simplified Memory Model
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Info-processing model of memory – simple explanation of a complex topic—memory is more complicated, but the basic structure of the model helps drive research into how memory works
Encoding – getting info into our brain
Storage – retain the information
Retrieval – getting information out of memory storage

4. Atkinson and Shiffin’s 3 Step Model of Memory
Sensory memory – brief recording of sensory information
Short-term memory – memory that holds few items briefly before info is forgotten
Long –term memory – relatively permanent and limitless storage of memory.

5. Sensory Memory
A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information.
Sperling’s research on Iconic Memory
Echoic Memory

6. Short Term Memory The stuff we encode from the sensory goes to STM.
Events are encoded visually, acoustically or semantically.
Holds about 7 (plus or minus 2) items for about 20 seconds.
We recall digits better than letters.
Short Term Memory Activity

7. Long Term Memory
Unlimited storehouse of information.
Examples:

8. Modified Atkinson – Shiffrin (3 Stage) Model
Working Memory –conscious, active processing of auditory and visual-spatial info. and info from long term memory
Our memory sketchpad

9. Modified Three-stage Model of Memory
Active processing occurs in the short term memory stage, that many now perfer the term working memory
Short term memory is not infor that we remember for days or weeks and then forget. True short term memory only lasts about a minute or so.Memories that stay with us, but not permanenetly are stored in working memory
Pledge of allegiance – ask students if they can recite the second sentence of the pledge. It consists of a single sentence

10. Connectionism Model of Memory
Memory from activation of networks of interrelated concepts
the memory is stored in the activation pattern
retrieval of the memory is a reconstruction based on each of the elements of the pattern

11. How We Encode 2 Ways to Encode Automatically Processing
Parallel
Effortful processing
Rehearsal

12. Encoding - Automatic Processing
Automatic Processing - unconscious encoding of incidental information
Examples: Unintentionally encoding…and later remembering
Time –
Space –
Frequency –
well learned info –
Parallel Processing – processing of many things simultaneously

13. Encoding – Effortful Processing
Effortful Processing –encoding that requires conscious effort and attention
Rehearsal – conscious repetition of info to encode it for storage

14. Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
Ebbinghaus Curve - The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning
Overlearning – additional rehearsal after we learn material increases retention

15. Effortful Processing
Spacing effect – distributed study is better long-term recall than massed study (cramming)
DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!!
Testing effect – repeated quizzing or testing improves retention

16. Take out a piece of paper and name all the Presidents…

17. Encoding Information
Serial Positioning Effect – we tend to remember the first and last items on a list
Primacy Effect – remember items at the beginning of a list
Recency Effect – remembering items at the end of a list (most recent
Von Rostorff effect – remembering unique items on a list

18. What We Encode… Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.
Encoding Exercise
What We Encode…
Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.
Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.
Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.

19. Visual Encoding
Encoding Exercise
Imagery – visual images help us remember concrete words (aided by semantic encoding
Rosy Retrospection – recalling high points, forgetting the worst
Mnemonic Devices – memory aids that use visual images and organizational devices
Peg word system – memorizing a jingle
Chunking - Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.
Hierarchies – broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

20. Acoustic and Semantic Encoding
Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.
Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.
Semantic Encoding produces better recognition later than visual or acoustic

21. Storage
Types of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-Term Memory

22. Sensory Memory Sperling’s memory experiment
Momentary photographic memory
Iconic memory – photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Example:
Echoic memory – auditory memory lasting no more than a 3-4 seconds (mind’s echo chamber)
Iconic memory – photographic memory
Sperling flashed a group of letters for 1/20th of a second. People could recall only about ½ of letters. When signaled with a tone, to recall a particular row, they could do so with perfect accuracy.
Echoic memory – memory for auditory stimuli – if attention is elsewhere sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 sec
Ex. Teacher asks “what did I just say”…recover last few words in mind’s echo chamber

23. Working/Short-Term Memory
Duration – Brief (30 sec or less)
Capacity – Limited
The list of magic sevens
Short term memory is limited by duration and capacity – typically hold about 7 bits of information

24. Long-Term Memory
Duration – unlimited
Capacity - unlimited

25. Types of Long-Term Memory

26. Implicit Memories Procedural Memories – without conscious recall
Processed by cerebellum and other brain areas
Conditioned Memories – memories from conditioned learning

27. Explicit Memories
Explicit Memories – memories of facts and experiences, consciously recalled
Episodic Memories - memories of specific events, situations, and experiences
Semantic Memories – memory of words, meanings, and understandings

28. Storing Memories Long Term-Potentiation
long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously.
Neurons that fire together wire together…creating a memory.
Memory boosting drugs
CREB
Glutamate – enhances synaptic communication (LTP)

29. The Context Matters!!!
Flashbulb Memories – clear moment of a emotionally significant event
Mood Congruent Memory – recalling memories consistent with current mood
State Dependent Memory – learning that takes place in one situation or "state" is generally better remembered later in a similar situation or state

30. Amnesia Amnesia – loss of memory
Retrograde Amnesia – inability to remember past events
Anterograde Amnesia – inability to create new memories
Loss of Explicit Memory but not Implicit memories

31. Retrieval Recall Recognition
you must retrieve the information from your memory
you must identify the target from possible targets
FRQ’s

32. Retrieval
Relearning – learning material for the second time, saves time.
Retrieval Cues – anchor points used to access target info for retrieval later
Priming – unconscious activation of associations in memory

33. Forgetting Schacter’s sevens sins of memory Sins of Forgetting
Absent-mindedness
Transience
Blocking
Sins of distortion
Misattribution
Suggestibility
Bias
Sin of intrusion
persistence

34. Encoding Failure

35. Storage Decay
Ebbinghaus Curve

36. Retrieval Failure

37. Forgetting
Retroactive Interference: new information blocks out old information.
Proactive Interference: old information blocks out new information.

38. Retrieval Failure Repression – (Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory)
A defense mechanism that banishes painful memories from consciousness to minimize anxiety

39. Constructive Memory
Constructed memory - a created memory, altered when encoded or retrieved.
Misinformation effect
Imagination effect
Source amnesia
Memories are not always what they seem.

40. Constructive Memory Elizabeth Loftus
Misinformation Effect – incorporating misleading info into a memory
Imagination Effect – imagining nonexistent actions and events can create false memories
Source Amnesia – retaining the memory of an event, but not the source

41. Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse?
Areas of agreement
Sexual abuse happens
Injustice happens
Forgetting happens
Recovered memories are incomplete
Memories before 3 years are unreliable
Hypnotic memories are unreliable
Memories can be emotionally upsetting

42. Improving Memory Techniques
Study repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what you do not yet know