Motivation Concepts 70% of all managers surveyed (in a recent national study) said their employees lacked motivation. Motivation remains one of major problems of modern management... Discussion: Motivation has more to do with who you are than what you do …

Today’s Objectives Outline the motivation process Contrast Theory X and Theory Y Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors

Conceptualize: The characteristics that high achievers prefer Types of goals that increase performance Impact of under rewarding employees Identify key relationships in expectancy theory

Motivation Is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort's ability to satisfy some individual need. Note that the definition involves the will or willingness. Motivation includes goals, ability and individual need. It makes the connection between what people want and what they need. It makes mutually beneficial exchanges possible.

Why Motivation Remains Elusive Needs vary among individuals over time The way in which needs translate into behavior vary widely over time Even if needs were fixed behavior may not be The way in which people react to need fulfillment or un fulfillment vary Cultural dimensions add additional complexity to the entire equation of employee motivation

Some Implications for Mangers Clearly make a determination of the rewards that would be valued by each employee Key performance to desired outputs Strongly link reward to measurable performance Analyze what factors might counteract the effectiveness of the reward For example, a high performer in a low performance team Insure that the reward is adequate...

Motivation Concepts (Theory) Need theories Goal-setting theory Reinforcement theory Equity theory Expectancy theory Unlike a fact, a theory cannot be proven true or false. It can only be supported by research. When empirical evidence does not support a theory, it makes the theory weaker. Some motivation theories are not as strongly supported by research as others.

Need Theory (What are needs?) A need is similar to a value in that it is fundamentally an internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive We defined motivation as the connection between wants and needs. Now let’s define a need. According to this definition, needs arise because not every outcome is attractive all the time. When certain outcomes are valued, we define that as a need.

Theory X and Theory Y Theory X Theory Y Employer belief about employees’ View of work Dislike and avoid it As natural as rest or play Ability to control Must be coerced, Exercise self direction controlled, and and self-control threatened Theory X and Theory Y are more specific theories of motivation geared towards the workplace. The theories are less a description of an individual’s motivation and more a description of employer stereotypes about workers. Specific workers may display one set of behavior or the other, but most are some mix. When a supervisor operates on Theory X assumptions, however, the consequences may be self-fulfilling. Theory Y is the implicit favorite in this listing. Everything looks like it ought to be great with a manager who works under Theory Y assumptions. This may not always be the case. Sometimes productivity can fall off even though satisfaction is very high. Attitude toward Avoid it, seek formal Accept it and even responsibility direction seek it Attitude toward Security valued over Management are not innovation ambition, so no desire to the only ones capable do anything new of innovation.

More on Theory X vs. Y Theory X Theory Y Managers must coerce employees Employees can only be motivated by a show of consideration (that is wages) Theory Y Involves participative management Intrinsic belief that people are inherently motivated People really do want to do a good job...

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory Instead of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction 2 scales: Satisfaction | No satisfaction No dissatisfaction | Dissatisfaction Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Factor theory has strong face validity. Managers like it because it seems to make inherent sense, even though its foundations in research have been hard to replicate. Herzberg says that things like good pay and working conditions may decrease dissatisfaction, but they cannot make you satisfied in a positive way.

Hygiene Factors- Lead to No Dissatisfaction Hygiene factors are limited in their motivational appeal and staying power Company policy Administration Supervision Working conditions Salary These are the hygiene factors that lead to less dissatisfaction.

Motivating Factors-Lead to Satisfaction Motivators are know as drivers with high staying power Achievement Recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement These are motivating factors. According to Herzberg, these factors will lead to high satisfaction. Herzberg’s model makes sense for some individuals, but it may not explain everyone’s motivation. Some people really do seem to be motivated by money. It may the sequence of the rewards, such as intermittent rather than fixed, that leads to changes in behavior. The same could be true of satisfaction.

McClelland's Theory of Needs Need for achievement Personal responsibility Feedback Moderate risk (50% chance) Need for power Need for affiliation McClelland suggested several needs, but in organizational settings he found three that had the most impact. He calls people with a strong desire to succeed high need achievers. He carried out a number of studies profiling such people. He found that they were most satisfied in situations where their chances of success were about fifty percent. Any lower and they felt they had not overcome enough obstacles. Any higher and they felt that the deck was stacked too highly against them. Others have a strong need for influence over others or to be part of a group. Neither of these needs makes for effective leadership. Achievers are not afraid to stand out, which may hurt group membership. The power-hungry may violate group norms against political activity and reduce their effectiveness as leaders.

Goal Setting Theory Set specific, difficult, but achievable goals Provide feedback on goal achievement, preferably self generated Ensure individual commitment to goal Goal setting theory is related to decision-making and forms the basis management by objectives and Total Quality Management. It suggests that when people set their own goals and can measure progress toward those goals, they will have a stronger commitment to complete the necessary tasks.

Reinforcement Theory Behavior with positive consequences will tend to be repeated Behavior with negative consequences will tend not be repeated This theory ignores the inner state of the individual It only looks at extrinsic rewards for desired actions Reinforcement theory is an extension of Operant Conditioning. It ignores intrinsic motivation and looks only at the extrinsic rewards that can be used to induce the desired actions.

Equity Theory A theory of job motivation that emphasizes the role played by an individual’s belief in the fairness of rewards and punishments in determining his or her performance satisfaction Individuals compare job inputs with outcomes For most individuals, rewards must be perceived as fair in order to be motivating Compare work reward ratio to those of relevant others Make choices based on perceived level of inequity or equity ... Equity theory suggests that individuals constantly make comparisons with others about how well their needs are being met. If they believe that their efforts are not being rewarded fairly, they may choose to equalize the inequity.

Six Possible Responses to Inequity: Change inputs (amount of work done) Change outcomes (outputs) Distort self-perception (self esteem) Distort perception of others (objective observations) Choose different reference point (relevant other) Leave (exit job) When inequity is detected, the individual has several choices: This assumes that these choices are within the individual’s control to change. Notice that actual productivity may not change if the reference point, the person whose rewards are the basis for comparison, can be changed. Perceptual distortion means that individuals may change the way themselves or others view the outcomes they receive to make them seem more or less valuable.

Table Equity Propositions When a person perceives an inequity and chooses to alter his or her output, they may increase or decrease their production. They may also increase or decrease the quality of their output, as this table shows.

Expectancy Theory Examines Three Relationships Will effort result in performance? Will performance result in reward? Will rewards result in achievement of personal goals? Expectancy theory is closely related to equity theory. Rather than examining the ratio of costs to benefits, expectancy theory looks at three ratios or expectancies: Effort/performance Performance/reward Reward/goal achievement The higher these three expectancies, the greater an individual’s motivation. But if any one falls to zero, so does total motivation.

Four Methods for Behavior Modification Positive Reinforcement Pleasant consequences Extinction Absence of reinforcement Avoidance Learning Unpleasant consequences Punishment Strong negative consequences

Hammer’s Rules for Using Behavior Modification Do NOT reward all individuals equally Be aware that failure to respond can also modify behavior Be sure to tell individuals what they can do to get reinforcement Don’t punish in front of others Be fair: Over rewarding Under rewarding / no recognition...

Performance Dimensions Ability Motivation is not the only factor leading to performance. People are not motivated by Equity Theory, Need Theories, or Expectancies. These are just ways of explaining and measuring their level of motivation. Overall performance also depends on their ability and on the opportunities people are given to perform well. Motivation Performance Opportunity

Some Notes on Motivating Professionals Strong, long-term commitment to their field of expertise Loyalty to profession not employer Need to regularly update knowledge Motivated by job challenge more than money or promotion Rewarded by continuing education and control over job structure Professionals create have a different situation from rank-and-file employees because their professional training creates strong ties outside the organizational boundary. They need challenging work, ongoing training, and opportunities to update their contacts with members of their profession. Reward systems for professionals must take these needs into account.

Notes on Motivating Temporary Workers No Simple Solutions. Make permanent status an option Offer training opportunities Be careful mixing permanent workers and temps in same work group Temporary workers make up a significant part of the workforce today. For example, Manpower, Inc., a temporary agency, is the largest private employer in San Diego County, California. While not all “temps” seek permanent work, many are interested in the “temp-to-perm” option. When that is not a possibility, it may be worthwhile to offer temps additional training. Mixing permanent workers with temps could lead to dissatisfaction because temps do not receive the same level of pay and benefits full time workers get. By the same token, permanent employees may get the message that their jobs are not valued and that they may be replaced by lower cost temporary workers.

Motivating the Diversified Work Force Requires Flexibility Work schedules Work hours Job sharing Compensation plans Benefits Child care Physical work settings Teamwork versus individual responsibility Because a diversified workforce has a variety of needs, managers need a full range of options to motivate their employees. Higher compensation may not always be the answer. Individual incentives may not work as well as group incentives. Some workers prefer more time with their families or help with child care expenses to more money in their paycheck. Some employees would rather work in a relaxed, comfortable atmosphere, while others thrive on a high pressure “rock and roll” situation.

Key Issues in Motivation Recognize individual differences Use goals and feedback Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them Link rewards to performance Check the system for equity These major themes in motivating employees are also relevant when working with volunteers and team members from other organizations. Even though they are in your pay, they still have needs that must be met if they are to continue participating the activities of the organization.

How a Typical Quality Circle Operates Identify Problem Decision Select Problem Quality circles are adapted from Japanese methods. They empower workers to improve quality within their own group and across groups by seeking shared solutions to systemic problems. As noted earlier in the text, optimizing techniques such as this one will suffer from cognitive limits, implicit choices, and other bounds to rationality. Worse, a group may try to solve problems beyond its control which could lead to higher dissatisfaction if recommendations are not adopted by the rest of the organization. Review Solution Review Problem Recommend Solution