CHAPTER 2 THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Learning Objectives What are the five basic issues in human development? Where does each major theorist – Freud, Erikson, Skinner, Bandura, Piaget, and Gottlieb – stand on each of these issues?

Theories of Human Development Theory: Ideas proposed to describe/explain certain phenomena Organizes facts/observations Guides collection of new data Should be internally consistent Falsifiable: Hypothesis can be tested Supported by data

Other Assumptions About Human Nature Nature/Nurture: Heredity or environment most influential? Is development primarily the product of genes, biology, and maturation – or of experience, learning, and social influences?

Other Assumptions About Human Nature Goodness/Badness: Underlying good or evil Are humans innately good, innately bad, neither (tabula rasae) or both? Thomas Hobbes Children are inherently selfish and bad Society’s responsibility to teach them to behave Jean Jacques Rousseau Children are inherently good Innate ability to know right from wrong Would go right as long as society stays out of the way John Locke Infants are tabula rasae or “blank slates” Children are neither either good nor bad Experiences determine the direction children take

Other Assumptions About Human Nature Active/Passive Development: Self determination or by others Do humans actively shape their own environments and contribute to their own development … – or are they passively shaped by forces beyond their control?

Other Assumptions About Human Nature Continuity/Discontinuity: Stages or gradual change Do humans change gradually … Weight gain in children Or do they quickly change dramatically into different beings? Adolescent growth spurts

Other Assumptions About Human Nature Quantitative/Qualitative Changes: Degree or transformation Do humans change in quantitative ways … Gains wrinkles, grows taller, knows more vocabulary words Or do they progress through qualitatively different stages? Caterpillar into a butterfly Non-verbal into speaking toddler into prepubertal child into a sexually mature adolescent.

Other Assumptions About Human Nature Universal or Context Specific Development Is development similar from person to person and from culture to culture… Or do pathways of development vary considerably depending on the social contexts? In America preschool children sometimes believe their dreams are real but give up this belief as they age; where as, Atayal culture of Taiwan have been observed to become more and more convinced as they get older that dreams are real because that is what most people in their culture believe.

Learning Objectives What are the distinct features of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the theory?

Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory Instincts and unconscious motivation Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic energy (Libido) Id: Instinctual nature of humans Pleasure Principal Ego: Rational and objective Reality Principal Superego: Internalized moral standards Dynamic system: Regular conflicts within

Freud’s Psychosexual Development Child moves through five stages Oral Stage Oral receptive vs. Oral aggressive Anal Stage Anal retentive vs. Anal expulsive Phalic Stage Oedipus & Electra Complex Latency Stage Identification with same-sex parent Genital Stage Satisfy mature sexual instinct

Freud’s Psychosexual Development Stages result from conflict between Id & Superego Conflict creates anxiety Ego defends against anxiety with defense mechanisms Early experiences have long-term effects on personality

Freud’s Psychosexual Development Emphasized the role of nature over nurture Believed humans are basically evil Believed development has qualitative changes Believed development was discontinuous Believed development was passive Believed development was universal

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory Awareness of unconscious motivation Emphasized important early experience Weaknesses Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable Not supported by research

Learning Objectives How does Erikson’s psychoanalytic theory compare to Freud’s theory? What crisis characterizes each of Erikson’s psychosocial stages?

Erik Erikson Most influential neo-Freudian Some differences with Freud Emphasis on psychosocial stages Less emphasis on sexual urges More emphasis on rational ego (choices) More positive, adaptive view of human nature Development continues through adulthood

Erikson’s Stages: Approximate Ages Trust vs. Mistrust: Importance of responsive caregiver Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt: Preschool Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschool Industry vs. Inferiority: School-age children Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young adult Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle age Integrity vs. Despair: Old Age

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still most relevant Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature Interaction of biological & social influences Weaknesses Sometimes vague and difficult to test Does not explain how development comes about

Learning Objectives What are the distinct features of the learning theories covered in this chapter: Watson’s classical conditioning, Skinner’s operant conditioning, and Bandura’s social-cognitive theory? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the learning theories?

Learning Theories: Classical Conditioning Behaviorism: Conclusions should be based on observable behavior only Tabula Rasa - Environmental view Association Learning UCS: Built-in, unlearned stimulus UCR: Automatic, unlearned response CS: Stimulus causes learned response CR: Learned response

The three phases of classical conditioning

Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning Probability of behavior based on environmental consequences Reinforcement Pleasant consequence Increases probability Punishment Decreases probability Unpleasant, aversive

Possible consequences of whining behavior. Moosie comes into the TV room and sees his father talking and joking with his sister. Lulu, as the two watch a football game. Soon Moosie begins to whine, louder and louder, that he wants them to turn off the television so he can play Nintendo games. If you were Moosie’s father, how would you react? Here are four possible consequences of Moosie’s behavior. Consider both the type of consequences – whether it is a pleasant or aversive stimulus – and whether it is administered (“added to”) or withdrawn. Notice that reinforcers strengthen whining behavior, or make it more likely in the future, whereas punishers weaken it.

Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory Formerly called social learning theory Humans think, anticipate, believe, etc. Cognitive Emphasis: Observational learning BoBo doll studies Model praised or punished Child learned to imitate rewarded model Vicarious reinforcement

Learning Theory: Strengths & Weaknesses Precise and testable theory Carefully controlled experiments Practical applications across lifespan Weaknesses Inadequate account of lifespan changes Ignored genetic and maturational processes

Learning Objectives What is Piaget’s perspective on cognitive development? What are the strengths and weaknesses of Piaget’s theory?

Piaget: Cognitive Developmental Theory Intelligence: Ability to adapt to environment Constructivism: Understanding based on experience Interactionist Both biological maturation and experience required for developmental progress At each new stage, children think in a qualitatively different way

Cognitive Developmental Theory Strengths Well-accepted by developmentalists Well-researched, mostly supported Influenced education and parenting Weaknesses Ignores motivation and emotion Stages not universal especially the last one

Learning Objective How do systems theories, in general, conceptualize development?

Contextual/Systems Theories Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural perspective Cognitive development is a social process Problem solving aided by dialogues Gottlieb: Evolutionary/Epigenetic Systems Genes, neural activity, behavior, and environment mutually influential Normal genes and normal early experiences most helpful

Learning Objectives What are the essential elements of Gottlieb’s epigenetic psychobiological systems perspective of development? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the systems approaches to development?

Gottlieb – Developmental Psychobiology Interaction: Biological & environmental influences Individual programmed through evolution Current behavior results from past adaptation Ethology: Behavior adaptive to specific environments E.g., food scarcity creates nomadic behaviors Species-specific behavior of animals & humans

Gottlieb: Epigenesis Instinctual behavior may or may not occur Depends on early physical and social environments Genes alone don’t influence behavior A system of interactions People develop in changing contexts Historical Cultural

Strengths and Weaknesses Stresses the interaction of nature and nurture Weaknesses Only partially formulated and tested No coherent developmental theory

Learning Objective How can we characterize the theories in general?

Class Participation Question 1 (from Box 2.1) Directions: Choose one option for each statement and write down the corresponding letter. Biological influences and learning experiences are thought to contribute to development. Overall: a. Biological factors contribute far more b. Biological factors contribute somewhat more c. Both biological and environmental factors contribute equally d. Environmental factors contribute somewhat more e.Environmental factors contribute far more

Class Participation Question 2 Children are innately: a. Mostly bad; they are born with basically negative, selfish impulses b. Neither good nor bad; they are tabula rasae (blank slates) c. Both good and bad; they are born with predispositions that are both negative and positive d. Mostly good; they are born with many positive tendencies

Class Participation Question 3 People are basically: a. Active beings who are the prime determiners of their own abilities and traits b. Passive beings whose characteristics are molded either by social influences (parents, other significant people, and outside events) or by biological changes beyond their control.

Class Participation Question 4 Development proceeds: a. through stages so that the individual changes rather abruptly into a different kind of person than s/he was in an earlier stage b. In a variety of ways – some stage-like, and some gradual or continuous c. Continuously – in small increments without abrupt changes or distinct stages

Class Participation Question 5 When you compare the development of different individuals, you see: a. Many similarities: Children and adults develop along universal paths and experience similar changes at similar ages b. Many differences: Different people often undergo different sequences of change and have widely different timetables of development