Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 Chapter Twelve: Achievement

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 What is Achievement? Achievement includes performance in educational settings, hopes and plans for future scholastic and occupational careersAchievement includes performance in educational settings, hopes and plans for future scholastic and occupational careers Important because our society places such an emphasis on occupational successImportant because our society places such an emphasis on occupational success Insert DAL photo

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 Why is Achievement an Adolescent Issue? Achievement is a lifelong concern, but adolescence merits special attention because:Achievement is a lifelong concern, but adolescence merits special attention because: –It is a time of preparation for adult work roles –Teens evaluate differences in school performance in regard to future success. It is the first time performance in school is tied to future outcomes –Educational decisions are numerous and consequences of decisions are serious (i.e., what type of classes; what they want to do after high school)

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 What Motivates Adolescents to Achieve? Need for achievement (Nach)Need for achievement (Nach) –Extent to which an individual strives for success and is intrinsically motivated to perform well Teens with high need for achievement have authoritative parents who have encouraged success and:Teens with high need for achievement have authoritative parents who have encouraged success and: Set high performance standardsSet high performance standards Rewarded achievement success during childhoodRewarded achievement success during childhood Encouraged autonomy and independenceEncouraged autonomy and independence

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Puberty and Achievement Changes what is important in order to maintain status Dating and being attractive to opposite sex may be more important than doing well in school

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cognitive changes and achievement Because they think in a more sophisticated manner, they begin to hypothesize about future more However, they don’t really have the life experience to adequately make these decisions

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Social Roles and Achievement Child labor laws typically keep kids out of the work force until they are in mid adolescence Adolescents don’t think about long-term life goals until mid adolescence

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 8 What Motivates Adolescents to Achieve? Fear of failureFear of failure –Often manifested by feelings of anxiety –Interferes with successful performance –Interacts with adolescents’ need for achievement UnderachieversUnderachievers –Have weak need for achievement and high fear of failure –Tend to avoid and dread challenging situations –Grades are lower than expected based on ability

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Self-handicapping strategies Some students don’t put in effort because it is not “cool” Want to hide the fact that they do poorly because of low ability Some of the things they do to hinder their own performance: –Joking around –Studying at last minute –Turning in incomplete homework, if at all –Acting like school is not important

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Motivation 1 – Instinct Theory –Innate tendencies or biological forces that determine behavior In animals, we look at a fixed action pattern – where an innate biological force predisposes an organism to behave in a certain way under certain environmental conditions

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 – Drive-Reduction Theory States that a need results in a drive, which is a state of tension that motivates the organism to act to reduce the tension and return the body to homeostasis Homeostasis – tendency for the body to return and remain in a more balanced physiological state

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Drive-Reduction theory cont’d There are two types of drives in this theory: –Primary drives: biological needs – same for everyone –Secondary drives: learned needs – vary from person to person

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Incentive theory 3. Incentive theory States that an organism’s behavior is motivated by external stimuli, such as reinforcers or rewards. Different from the cognitive theory because this is more behavioral Behavior driven by desire, not need

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4. – Arousal theory – –When level of stimulation drops below the organism’s optimum level, the organism will seek ways of increasing the stimulation. Those with a high need for arousal will seek exciting experiences, called sensation- seekers – often get bored and may be unable to restrain impulses –When level of stimulation exceeds optimal level, the organism will seek ways of decreasing the stimulation

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Arousal theory cont’d This theory may explain behaviors that don’t appear driven by biological factors Why do some people feel the need to drive fast or ride on roller coasters? What is the drive behind this need? Some call it sensation-seeking

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Arousal and Performance Yerkes-Dodson Law –People perform best under moderate conditions of arousal – that is, a little anxiety or stress goes a long way for people –However, too little arousal or too much arousal may hinder performance

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18 Why Are Beliefs Important for Achievement? Adolescents’ beliefs about their abilities influence their actual achievement, which, in turn, shapes their beliefs about their abilitiesAdolescents’ beliefs about their abilities influence their actual achievement, which, in turn, shapes their beliefs about their abilities

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 19 Why Are Beliefs Important for Achievement? Two types of motivation are affected by adolescents’ beliefs about their abilities:Two types of motivation are affected by adolescents’ beliefs about their abilities: –Intrinsic motivation Strive to achieve because of the internal pleasure they get out of learning and mastering the materialStrive to achieve because of the internal pleasure they get out of learning and mastering the material –Extrinsic motivation Strive to achieve because of external rewards or punishment for performanceStrive to achieve because of external rewards or punishment for performance

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 20 Why Are Beliefs Important for Achievement? Stereotype threat (Claude Steele)Stereotype threat (Claude Steele) –Students’ beliefs about their abilities, and their subsequent performance can be affected by situational factors –Telling ethnic minorities or females that their group typically does poorly on a certain kind of test results in lower scores on that test

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Stereotype Threat Those who identify themselves with a race that has a positive image do well on tests and vice versa Tends to last as long as the stereotype (i.e., black student’s performance went up after Obama was elected – named “the Obama effect”)

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 22 Why Are Beliefs Important for Achievement? Three factors interact to predict students’ behavior in schoolThree factors interact to predict students’ behavior in school –Belief that intelligence is fixed or malleable –Intrinsic or extrinsic orientation –Sense of self-efficacy Achievement AttributionsAchievement Attributions –Explanations students give for their success or failure –Learned helplessness is the belief that failure is inevitable –Self-fulfilling prophecies

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Internal vs. external attributions Internal attributions – when we tend to look at the characteristics or the character of a person to judge their behavior (ours or others) External attributions – when we make judgments about behaviors based on the situation occurring

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Attributions Self-serving bias – when we are successful, we tend to look at internal attributions. When we fail, we tend to look at external attributions.

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. If the other person is perceived to be: A success A failure Like me Internal attribution External attributions Not like me External attributions Internal attributions

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Drop in Motivation During the Transition into Secondary School Students’ motivation and school performance decline when they move into secondary schoolStudents’ motivation and school performance decline when they move into secondary school –Possible explanations Shift toward a more performance-oriented style of instruction and evaluationShift toward a more performance-oriented style of instruction and evaluation Elementary schools stress mastering the materialsElementary schools stress mastering the materials Secondary schools place emphasis on achieving high gradesSecondary schools place emphasis on achieving high grades 26

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 27 Does the Home Environment Influence Achievement? Despite the importance of school environment, aspects of the home are better predictors of academic achievement:Despite the importance of school environment, aspects of the home are better predictors of academic achievement: –Parents’ values and expectations –Parents’ general approach to parenting –Quality of the home environment provided - cultural capital-exposure to art, music, literature has a positive impact social capital-having adult support, encouragement and involvement social capital-having adult support, encouragement and involvement

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 28 How Do Friends Influence Achievement? Friends are the most salient influence on adolescents’ day-to-day school behaviors such as doing homework and exerting effort in classFriends are the most salient influence on adolescents’ day-to-day school behaviors such as doing homework and exerting effort in class Friends do not always undermine successFriends do not always undermine success By middle school, adolescents are increasingly worried about their friends’ reactions to school successBy middle school, adolescents are increasingly worried about their friends’ reactions to school success

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 29 What Is Educational Achievement? Educational achievement is defined in three waysEducational achievement is defined in three ways –School performance (grades earned) –Academic achievement (performance on standardized tests) –Educational attainment (years of schooling completed)

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 30 How Does SES Affect Educational Achievement? Compared to lower-class peers, middle-class adolescents:Compared to lower-class peers, middle-class adolescents: –Score higher on basic tests of academic skills –Earn higher grades in school –Complete more years of schooling Reasons for worse school performance of poor youth?Reasons for worse school performance of poor youth? –They begin school with a distinct academic disadvantage (scoring lower on tests of basic skills) –Genetic (lower IQ) and environmental (less cultural and social capital) disadvantages –Experience more stressful life events

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Early Intervention Interventions designed to improve academic achievement of very poor youngstersInterventions designed to improve academic achievement of very poor youngsters –Target school skills and strengthen links between parents and their child’s school Long-term evaluations show significant successLong-term evaluations show significant success 31

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 32 Are There Ethnic Differences in Educational Achievement? Black and Hispanic students achieve less than White studentsBlack and Hispanic students achieve less than White students Educational achievements of all groups lag behind Asian-American studentsEducational achievements of all groups lag behind Asian-American students –Many Asian American adolescents believe that the only way to succeed in mainstream American society is through educational achievement –Sense of obligation to parents does not seem to predict school achievement

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 33 Are There Ethnic Differences in Educational Achievement? Asian Americans’ success may be because they:Asian Americans’ success may be because they: –are intrinsically motivated –spend more time on homework –spend less time watching TV and socializing Contrary to popular belief, Asian- American students:Contrary to popular belief, Asian- American students: –Are not subject to greater anxiety, depression, or stress –Report more positive moods when studying than other groups Insert DAL photo

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 34 Has Educational Achievement Changed Over Time? Trends in academic achievement (what students know) have not paralleled trends in educational attainmentTrends in academic achievement (what students know) have not paralleled trends in educational attainment –Students stay in school longer but are not learning more

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 35 Has Educational Achievement Changed Over Time? American students fare poorly in international comparisons, despite the fact that spending on education in the United States is among the world's highestAmerican students fare poorly in international comparisons, despite the fact that spending on education in the United States is among the world's highest Reasons given for poor achievement in the United StatesReasons given for poor achievement in the United States –Teachers aren’t spending enough time on basic instruction –Textbooks have become less challenging –Parents do not encourage academic pursuits at home –Students choose their own classes –Grade inflation – good grades without hard work

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 36 Dropping Out of High School 9% of individuals 16 to 24 are not enrolled in school and do not have high school diploma or GED9% of individuals 16 to 24 are not enrolled in school and do not have high school diploma or GED –Hispanic adolescents have the highest dropout rate Dropping out is the culmination of a long process (repeated academic failure and alienation from school)Dropping out is the culmination of a long process (repeated academic failure and alienation from school) Interventions that focus on guided discussions of options are promisingInterventions that focus on guided discussions of options are promising

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Dropping Out of High School 37

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Career Development Super’s Self-Concept Theory Individuals’ self-concepts play central roles in their career choices During adolescence individuals first construct a career self-concept Develop ideas about work Crystallize or narrow their choices Begin to initiate behavior for some type of career Begin specific training for a career In later life - after 35 years of age - begin to consolidate & engage in career enhancement

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 39 How Do Adolescents Develop Occupational Plans? Super’s theorySuper’s theory –Occupational plans develop in stages Crystallization (around 4 to 18)Crystallization (around 4 to 18) –Individuals begin to formulate ideas about appropriate work Specification (around ages 18 to 21)Specification (around ages 18 to 21) –Recognizes the need to specify vocational interests –Begins to seek appropriate information to do this Involves an integration of influences from one’s past with one’s hopes for the futureInvolves an integration of influences from one’s past with one’s hopes for the future Labor force changes have pushed this process back to later ages – now crystallization may begin in late college years and specification not until mid-20sLabor force changes have pushed this process back to later ages – now crystallization may begin in late college years and specification not until mid-20s

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories of Career Development Three main theories describe manner in which adolescents make choices about career development: Ginzberg’s Developmental Theory Children and adolescents go through three career-choice stages: fantasy, tentative, and realistic Until about age 11, children are in fantasy stage with unrealistic visions of their career Tentative stage is a transitional and occurs in the early to mid-adolescent years Realistic stage explores, focuses & then selects a career

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 41 What Influences Occupational Plans? Work valuesWork values –The different sort of rewards individuals seek from their work –Contemporary adolescents have unrealistic and overly ambitious ideas about these rewards