Chapter 7: Learning

4 Types of learning: Classical Conditioning: learn by unavoidable physical association (involuntary) Operant Conditioning: learning cause by actions we perform (voluntary) Social Learning: learn by watching others Cognitive Approach: using thought processes in learning

Conditioning Conditioning is learning or making an association between two events. - Real life examples?

Classical Conditioning Can be divided into two parts: STIMULUS Unconditioned (UCS) and Conditioned (CS) RESPONSE Unconditioned (UCR) and Conditioned (CR) Naturally, the unconditioned stimulus produces the unconditioned response After conditioning, the conditioned stimulus produces the conditioned response (conditioned response has been brought on by learning)

Pavlov’s Dog Classical Conditioning Discovered by Ivan Pavlov accidentally during process of investigating process of digestion https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpoLxEN54ho

Pavlov’s Dog

Conditioning BEFORE CONDITIONING… AFTER CONDITIONING… Unconditioned Stimulus: UCS= Food Unconditioned Response: UCR= Salivation Neutral Stimulus: NS (N)= bell AFTER CONDITIONING… Conditioned Stimulus: CS= Sound of bell Conditioned Response: CR= Salivation

Little Albert Experiment Remember John Watson’s Little Albert Experiment?

Little Albert Experiment Identify the following in Watson’s Little Albert experiment: Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response Neutral Stimulus

Little Albert Experiment Watson found that… conditioning of emotions in response to neutral objects is possible A conditioned emotion can generalize to other objects

Little Albert Experiment Mary Cover Jones – student of Watson’s researched how to overcome phobias after her experience observing the Little Albert Experiment.

Generalization vs. Discrimination Stimulus generalization: similar response produced from one specific stimulus to other stimuli that resemble the original Discrimination: Similar stimulus or cue does not produce a similar response because no reinforcement follows What could have caused little Albert to discriminate between a white rat and a Santa Claus mask, for example?

Extinction Extinction: Loss of association over time, fears can be reversed by associating it with something pleasant What could have caused extinction for little Albert?

Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is learning caused by actions we perform (voluntary) Human performs actions (operations) Example: Big Bang Theory: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qy_mIEnnlF4

Operant Conditioning Behavior learned due to consequences (reinforcement & punishment) Reinforcement: strengthens response, critical for this type of learning Positive reinforcement = something organism wants is added Example? Negative reinforcement = something organism doesn’t want is taken away or avoided Punishment: weaken a response by adding something unpleasant, can be taken away or added. What type of operant conditioning is used in Big Bang Theory?

Reinforcement Reinforcement is something that follows a response and strengthens the tendency to repeat that response Primary Reinforcement: something necessary for psychological/ physical survival that is used as a reward. eg: Food or water Secondary Reinforcement: anything that comes to represent a primary reinforce, such as money bringing food. Motivation to go to work every day is to receive money to purchase food and shelter.

Punishment Punishment: the process of weakening a response by following it with unpleasant consequences Examples?

Operant Conditioning Shaping: the process of gradually refining a response by successively reinforcing closer approximations of it. Dog being trained to jump through hoop will first be reinforced w/ food for simply approaching hoop; then reinforced for walking through hoop; eventually, shaped to jump through hoop Other examples? Chaining: reinforcing the connection between different parts of a sequence Learning a dance, you first learn different parts of routine, then put the parts together.

Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner Operant conditioning chamber AKA “Skinner Box” http://wn.com/operant_conditioning_chamber

Schedules of Reinforcement Different methods of providing reinforcement during operant conditioning “Skinner Box” = continuous reinforcement, when each time a desired behavior occurs (pull lever), it is reinforced (food appears) Other schedules of reinforcement include: Variable Ratio Fixed Ratio Variable Interval Fixed Interval

Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Ratio: varying the number of times a desire behavior must occur before a reinforcement is given EXAMPLES: A pigeon must peck three times before he receives food, the next time requires five pecks, then seven, then two, and so on A slot machine is another example, since players cannot predict when the large jackpot reward will appear.

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio: The person/animal receives reinforcement after a fixed number of acts (desired behaviors) EXAMPLES: A pigeon receives food after five pecks every time. Receive a prize once you’ve reached the bottom of every cereal box A factory worker receives a certain amount of money for every product he/she produces What would be a potential issue with the last example of fixed ratio reinforcement?

Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Interval: Reinforcement is given after a variable amount of time. EXAMPLES: When fishing, you never know how long it will take (variable time) to catch a fish (positive reinforcement)

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Interval: reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time EXAMPLES: Most jobs issue paychecks every two weeks, no matter how many hours of work you do each week. More congressional activity before vacation If pigeon pecks, it is given food every five minutes What might be the disadvantage of this last schedule of reinforcement?

Stimulus Generalization vs. Generalization Stimulus Generalization: A response spread from one specific stimulus to other stimuli that resemble the original Generalization: A behavior that spreads from one situation to another one. One a boy pets a dog and it results in a wagging tail, he is likely to approach and pet another dog.

Social Learning Social Learning: All learning that occurs in a social situation Observational learning: form of social learning in which the organism observes and imitates the behavior of others Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqNaLerMNOE

Cognitive Approach to Learning Cognitive Approach: a way of learning based on abstract mental processes and previous knowledge We use the cognitive approach to learn very abstract and subtle things that could not be learned simple through conditioning or social learning Like algebra or acting, for example Superstitions are also learned this way

Cognitive Maps . E.C. Tolman theorized that all animals (including humans and rats) form Cognitive maps, which are mental images of where one is located in space. Cognitive maps help us to figure out where we are located in an environment and how to get to where we want to go. Rats use cognitive maps to navigate mazes. They also use strategies, which are methods of solving problems