1. Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior potential) produced by experience

2. Association We learn by association Associative Learning
Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence
Aristotle 2000 years ago
John Locke and David Hume 200 years ago
Associative Learning
learning that two events occur together
two stimuli
a response and its consequences

3. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
We learn to associate two stimuli

4. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov studies digestion in dogs (1904)
Conditions dogs to salivate to a sound (bell or buzzer)
Determines formula for the conditioning process
UCS = UCR
NS + UCS = UCR
CS = CR
Best case: NS precedes UCS
Worst case: NS follows UCS

5. Classical Conditioning
UCS
(passionate
kiss)
UCR
(sexual
arousal) CS
(onion
breath) CR
Kiss)

6. Characteristics of Conditioning
Generalization: the tendency of stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus to evoke a similar conditioned response
Discrimination: to be able to differentiate between stimuli
Extinction: a process by which the effects of conditioning are reduced and finally disappear
Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction

7. Characteristics of Conditioning (cont.)
Higher-order conditioning: a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus

8. Operant Conditioning
We learn to associate a response and its consequence

9. Operant Conditioning
Definition: behavior is shaped by the consequences it produces
We “learn” by doing things that produce positive outcomes and/or allow us to avoid negative outcomes (sometimes negative is better than none at all)

10. Operant Conditioning Reinforcer Shaping
any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Shaping
operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal

11. Operant Conditioning (cont.)
Primary reinforcers: they satisfy a biological need – food, water, sex (we need to feel a deficit of it for it to be a reinforcer)
Secondary reinforcers: they take on the ability to reinforce – e.g. money, status, praise
Positive reinforcers: the behavior is strengthened to get the reward
Negative reinforcers: the behavior is strengthened to avoid the reinforcer
Punishment: the behavior is weakened to avoid the reinforcer

12. Operant Conditioning

13. Punishment

14. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time
results in slower acquisition
greater resistance to extinction

15. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule
reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
faster you respond the more rewards you get
different ratios
very high rate of responding
like piecework pay

16. Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Ratio (VR)
reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
average ratios
like gambling, fishing
very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability

17. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval (FI)
reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near

18. Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Interval (VI)
reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
produces slow steady responding
like pop quiz

19. Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Interval
Number of
responses
1000
750
500
250 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (minutes)
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Steady responding
Rapid responding
near time for
reinforcement 80

20. Operant vs Classical Conditioning

21. Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Cognitive Map
mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
Latent Learning
learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

22. Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Intrinsic Motivation
desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective
Extrinsic Motivation
desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments

23. Observational Learning
learning by observing others
Modeling
process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

24. Observational Learning
Alfred Bandura’s Experiments
Bobo doll
we look and we learn

25. Observational Learning
Prosocial Behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
opposite of antisocial behavior

26. Television and Observational Learning